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presented to the

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA • SAN DIEGO

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FRIENDS OF THE LIBRARY

Dr. Denis Fox

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CHAMBERS'S

ENCYCLOPEDIA

A D1CTI0]^ARY

UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

NEW EDITION

VOL YII

M A L T E B R U X TO P E A R S 0 N

V -A" ^ v^

n\

WILLIAM & EGBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED LOXDO^' AND EDIXBURGH

J. B. LIPPIXCOTT COMPAXY, PHILADELPHIA

1901

A // Riahts reserved

The following Articles in this Volume are Copy rigli ted by J. B. Lippincott Company in the United States of America :

Maryland.

Massachusetts.

Michigan.

Minnesota.

MississippiMissorRi Riveh,

Mississippi (State).

Missouri (State).

Montana.

Mormons.

Nkhhaska.

Negroes.

Nevada.

New Hampshire.

New Jersey.

New Mexico.

New Orleans.

New York (City).

New York (State).

North Carolina.

Ohio.

Oklahoma.

Oregon.

Among tite	more important articles	in this Volume	are the following :
Malthus; Marx	Thomas Kirk up.	Names	Canon Lsaac Taylor.
Mammals; Man	Professor J. Arthur Tho.mson.	Napoleon	Lieut.-Coloiiel Clayton, R.A.
Man, Isle of	Ilev. T. E. Brown.	Napoleon III	F. F. Roget.
ISIanchester	C. Fairbairn.	Natal	E. P. Mathers.
Manure	John Hunter, F.C.S.	National Debt	Professor J. S. Nicholson.
Marlowe; Marston..	A. H. BULLEN.	Navy	Captain Garbett, R.N.
Marriage	D. MacLennan.	Negroes	Dr D. G. Brinton.
Marrtat	Walter Whyte. John Or.msby. Joseph Robertson.	Nelson Nervous System Newcastle	Professor J. K. Laughton. Dr Ale.xander Bruce. W. W. Tomlinson.
Marvell
Mary Queen of Scots
Maryland	Professor M. A. Newell.	Newfoundland	J. G. Colmer, C.M.G.
Massachusetts Mastiff	Horace G. Wadlin. Rev. M. W. Wynne.	New Guinea
Newman, John Henry	Richard Holt Hutton.
Matter Matthew; Moses	Professor P. G. Tait. Rev. John Sutherland Black.	New Orleans
New South Wales	James Bonwick.
Maurice	Thomas Hughes.	Newspaper	James Burnley.
	Dr LuNDiE. Stanley Lane-Poole.	New York	Professor Frank B. Greene. D. Petrie and J. Hislop, LL.D.
Mecca ; Medina	New Zealand
Medal; Mosaic	James Paton.	Nihilism	Prince Peter Kropotkine.
Medicine	Dr J. P. Steele.	Nitrogen	Dr Leonard Dobbin.
Mediterranean	Sir John Murray.	Nitro-glycerine	E. G. Carey.
Melbourne	J. F. HOGAN, M.P.	Norfolk; Norwich...	J. C. Groome.
Mkndelssohn	H. WnrrEHEAD.	North Carolina	Professor N. B Webster.
Meredith, George	Rev. John S. Black.	Norway ; Northmen..	J. T. Bealby.
Meteorology	Dr Buchan.	Nose	Professor Haycraft.
Methodists	Rev. T. T. Lambert.	Nova Scotia	J. G. Colmer, C M.G.
Mexico	W. Dundas Walker.	Novels	John Ormsbv.
Michelangelo		Numismatics	Dr B. V. Head, British Museum.
Migration	Dr Robert Brown. Lieut. -Colonel Dunlop.	Nursing Oath ; Neutrality....	Lucy J. Gibson. J. M. Irvine.
Militia
Mill	Thomas W. Tod.	Obstetrics	Dr R. Milne Murray.
Mill, John Stuart....	Professor Sori.ev.	O'CONNELL ; PaRNELL.	Thomas David.son.
MiLLAis; Millet	John M. Gray.	Ogam	Professor Rhys.
MiMjEr, Hugh	Robert Cochrane.	Ohio	A. A. Graham.
Milton	Richard Garnett, LL.D.	Oils ; Opium ; Paper.	P. L. Sl-MMONDS.
Mimicry	Edward B. Poulton.	Opera; Oratorio	Professor Franklin Peterson.
MiNi.vTURE Painting..	H. B. Wheatley.	Optics	Dr Alfred Daniell.
Mining ; Ore-deposits	Bennett H. Brough.	Orangemen	Grand-Chaplain G. R. Badenoch.
Mint	Edward Rigo.	Orchard	R. D. Blackmore.
MiRABEAU; MUSSET. ..	Thomas Davidson.	Orders, Knightly-	J. R. Pairman.
Missions	Rev. Prof. Thomas Smith, D.D.	Ordnance Survey	Captain S. C. N. Grant, U.E.
Mississippi (State)....	J. R. Preston.	Organ	J. F. Rowbotham.
Mississippi-Missouri.	Professor J. P. L'amberton.	Origen	Rev. A. P. Davidson.
Missouri Mithras	J. M. Greenwood. James MacDonald, LL.D.	OSSIAN .. . .
Ovid	Dr J. P. Steele.
Mohammed	Emm. Deutscii ami Rev. John Milne.	Oxford	A. Clark.
	W. Ramsay Smith.	Pacific Painting	Sir John Muhray. P. G. IIamertov.
MOLlfeRE
Moluccas	Professor A. H. Keane.	Pal.eography	Canon Isaac Taylor.
Money	Professor J. S. Nicholson.	Palaeontology	Professor James Geikie.
Montaigne; More....	P. Hume Brown, LL.D.	PALE.STINE	Sir Walter Besant and Prof. Hull.
Montesquieu	Professor Hastie.	Palmistry	Amelia Hutchison Stirling.
Montreal ; Ottawa...	Martin J. Griffin.	Panama	WoLFRED Nelson, M. D.
Montrose, Marquis of.	F. HiNDEs Groome.	Paraffin ; Naphtha.	William Love.
Moon ; Meteors	Rev. E. B. Kirk.	Paraguay	A. F. Baillie, Consul-generaL
Moors; Navarre	Rev. Wentworth Webster.	Parasites; Pasteur..	Professor J. Arthur Thomson.
Morley, Joh.v	Sir Edward Grey, Bart., M.P.	Paris	George Bauclay.
Mormons	F. D. Richards, Historiographer.	Parliament	Thomas Raleigh, D.C.L.
Morocco	Dr Robert Brown.	Parsons, Father	T. G. Law, LL.D.
Motion Motley	Professor C. G. Knott. F. H. Underwood, LL.D.	Pascal
Patents	A. W. Renton.
Mountains	Professor James Geikie.	P.-VTRICK, St	Professor 0. T. Stokes, D.D.
Music ; Mozart	Piofessoi- Franklin Peter.son.	Paul, St	Peaii Farrak.
Mysteries	Rev. S. Baring-Gould.	Peach ; Pear	R. D. Blackmore.
Mythology	F. B. Jevons.	Pearl	Edwin W. Streeter.
The Publishers beg to tender their thanks, for re	jvising or correcting articles in this Volume, to the |
Earl of Southesk ;	the Very Rev. the Dean of N	ORWICH ; the President	of Maynooth ; Professor Max-
Muller ; the Head-master of Marlborough College	the Kegistrar of OwENS College; tlie town-clerks of |
	lain, &c. ; Mrs Oliphant and Mis	s Nightingale; Colon	el Babbage ; Mr John Murray',
pubhsher ; and Mr Gardner, Paisley.

MAPS FOii VOL. A" 1 1.

PAGE

NEW SOUTH AVALES , 472

NEW ZEALAl^D 48S

PALESTINE 712

CHAMBERS'S

Encyclopedia

A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

.<^^

altebrilll, Konrad (properly Malthe Conrad Bruun), geographer, born 12th August 1775, at Thisted, in Jutland, studied in Copenhagen, but was banished in 1800 because of his having openly sliown his sym- pathy with the French Revo- lution. He sought refuge in Paris, where he supported himself by teaching and literary labours. With Mentelle and Herbin he compiled a Geographie Mathematiqiie du Monde (16 vols. 1803-7); and in 1808 he began Annales dcs Voyages, de la Geographie, et de VHistoire (24 voR), in 1818 Nouvclles Annales. His principal work is a Precis de la Geographie Universelle (8 vols. 1810-29; latest ed. 6 vols. 1872). He also contributed to the Dietionnaire de la Geographie Universelle (8 vols. 1821), and took an active part in founding the Geographical Society of Paris. He died 14th December 1826.— His son, Victor Adot.phe INIaltebrux (1816-89), was professor of liistory and Geography at the college of Pamiers and subsequently at Paris (1848-60); and from 1860 onwards he was secretary of the Geographical Society of Paris. He was the author of numerous geographical works, as La France Illnstre (new ed. 1879-84), L'Allemagne Ilhistre (1884-86), Histoire Geographique et Historiqae de V Allemarpie ( 1866- 68), v*;-c.

Ulaltese Cross. See Cross.

Maltese Do.;^, a small kind of spaniel, with roundish muzzle, and long, silky, generally white hair. It is fit only for a lapdog.

nialtlllis, Thomas Robert, the expounder of

I th' theory of population, was born 17th February I l"*>t^ at the Rookery, near Dorking, in Surrey, whtiie his father owned a small estate. He was ninth wrangler at Cambiidge in 1788, was elected Fellow of his college (Jesus), took orders, and was appointed to a parish in his native county. In 1798 he brought out his Essay on the Principle 313

of Popidation, which attracted great attention and met with no little criticism. During the following years IMalthus extended his knowledge of the subject both by travel and by reading, and in 1803 published a greatly enlarg-ed edition of his essay. In 1804 he married happily, and next year was appointed professoi' of Political Economy and Modern History in the East India Company's college at Haileybury, a post which he occupied till his deatii at Batl/on 2d December 1834.

Personally IMalthus Avas a kindly and accom- plished man, who followed what he l;elieved to be the truth, and who endured without a complaint the abuse and misundei-standing to which his writings exposed him. The aim of the Essay was to supply a reasoned corrective to the theories regarding the perfectibility of society, which had been diffused by Rousseau and his school, and which had been advocated in England by Godwin. Malthus maintained that such optimistic hopes are rendered baseless by the natural tendency of population to increase faster than the means of suljsistence. He pointed out that both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms life was so prolific that if allowed free room to multiply it would fill millions of worlds in the course of a few thousand years. The only limit to its increase is the want of room and food. "With regard to man, the question is complicated by the fact that the instinct of propagation is controlled by reason ; but even in his case the ultimate check' to population is the want of food, only it seldom opeiates directly, but takes a variety of forms in accordance with the complexity of human society. The more ini- mediate checks are either preventive or positive. The former appear as moral restraint or vice. The positive checks are exceedingly various, including 'all unwholesome occupations, severe labour and exposure to the seasons, extreme poverty, bad nursing of children, large towns, excesses of all kinds, the whole train of common diseases and epidemics, wars, jilagne, and famine.' Malthus goes on to illustrate the action of his principle by

MALTOX

MAMELUKES

a review of the history of the ditterent nations and races, sliowing what are the actual cliecks that liave limited population — celibacy, wai-s, infanticide, plagues, viciou»i practices — and proving that the liopulation dilHculty has affected the development of society from the be^'inning.

It cannot be said that Malthus was original in his exposition of the theory of population. It is a theme of both Plato and Aristotle. Shortly before the time of Malthus the proljlem had been liandled by Benjamin Franklin, Hume, and many other writers. Malthus crystallised the views of those writers, and presented them in systematic form with elaborate proofs derived from history. In certain details and in the form of exposition the Essay may be criticised ; but the broad principles of it can be doubted only by those who do not understand the question. The enormous increase of the means of suljsistence attained by colonisation and modern industrial development has only for a time postponed the population difficulty for the world at large, while its pressure is still felt in the more thickly peopled centres both of Europe and of the East. At the present time the most interest- ing feature of Malthus is his relation to Darwin. Darwin saw 'on reading INIaltlius On Population that natural selection was the inevitable result of the r.apid increase of all organic beings,' for such rai)id increase necessarily leads to the struggle for existence. To prevent misunderstanding it should be added that Malthus gives no sanction to the theories and practices currently known as Malthusi- anism. In this reference ^Malthus approved only of the principle of moral self-restraint ; ' do not marry till you have a fair prospect of supporting a family.' Besides his Essay on the Principle of Population ^Malthus wrote two important works. An Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent and Principles of Political Economy. See Memoir by Dr Otter, Bishop of Chichester (prefixed to 2d ed. , 1S36, of the Princijiles of Political Economy) ; also Bonar's Malthus and his Work ( 1885).

UlaltOIl, a town in the North and East Ridings of Yorkshire, on the Derwent, 22 miles NE. of York. It consists of New ]Malton, Norton, and Old ^lalton. The Dcrvcntio probably of the Komans, it has the Norman church of a "Gilbertine priory (1150), and a free grammar-school, founded in 1545 by Archbishop Holgate ; but no trace remains of a Norman castle. Iron and brass founding, tanning, brewing, t.*cc. are carried on ; and Norton is famous for its training stables. Till 1868 Malton returned two members, and then till 1885 one. Pop. 4910.

MalvaceJC, a natural order of exogenous plants, of \yiiich about 1000 species are known, chiefly tropical and most abundant in America, although the most important species belong to the Old World. They are herljaceous plants, shrubs, and occasionally in tropical countries trees ; with alternate entire or lobed leaves ; the flowers showy, generally on axillary stalks. The plants of this order have a great general similarity both in ap])earance and in properties and products. All contain a mucilaginous substance in great quan- tity, and some are very useful as an emollient and demulcent in medicine. The seeds contain a con- siderable quantity of bland fixed oil. The inner bark of the stem often yields a useful fibre, for which species of Hibiscus and Sida are particu- larly valued ; and to this order belong the cotton plants.— See CoTTox, Hibiscus, Hollyhock, Mallow, Maush-m allow, &c.

Malvern, Gkeat, one of the most fa.shionable watering-places in England, is situated 9 miles S\V. of Worcester, and 129 WNW. of London, on the east side of the Malvern Hills, at tlie foot

of the Worcestershire Beacon, from the summit of which (1444 feet above the sea-level) extensive views are obtained. It is irregularly laid out, and has a fine cruciform church, with' a square em battled tower 124 feet high rising from the centre, rebuilt in the reign of Henry "\'II., and restored in 1860-1. In the centre of' the town are large Assembly Rooms ( 1884) with winter promenade and gardens, and on the outskirts is INIalvern College, a handsome building in the Gothic style of the early Decorated period, erected in 1863-65 : the present number of boys is nearly 250, and there are several entrance scholarships, tenal)le during residence, of from £87 to £30 a year, and a leaving scholarship of £50 for three years, tenable at Oxford or Cambridge. Madame Goldschmidt (Jenny Lind) resided near Malvern for many vears previous to her death. Pop. (1801) 819;" ('l891) 6107. See Blackwood's Magazine for August 1884.

jllalwa« a former kingdom of India. See Central India.

Ulailielllkes, properly Mamli'KS, an Arabic word signifying white slaves captured in war or purchased in the market, and especially applied to the slave-kings in Egypt. These had their oiigin in the importation of a large number of Turkish slaves, from the regions of the Caucasus and Asia INIinor, by Es-Salih Ayyfib, grand-nephew of Saladin, and sultan of Egypt, in the middle of the 13th century. They were intended to act as a bodyguard and to defend their master against his numer- ous rivals as well as against the Crusaders, and they fulfilled their duty well, as is shown by the success of their repulse of the French invasion and the capture of St Louis in 1249. In the absence of capable successors to Es-Salih, his Mamelukes set up one of their own number as sultan of Egypt in 1250, and from that year to the Ottoman con(]uest in 1517 that country and Syria were ruled exclu- sively by IMameluke sultans. They were forty-eight in number, often retaining the throne but a few years, or even months, in consequence of the intrigues of rival emirs ; and they fell into two dynasties, the Bahri or Turkish Mamelukes (1250- 1390) and the Burji or Circassian (1390-1517). The sultan was chosen out of the military oligaichy, and owed his throne to personal prowess and the support of the biggest battalions, rarely to heredi- tary title. The Mamelukes did not readily projia- gate their race in a foreign country, and fresh importations were necessary to keep up the stock. As a rule the most powerful lord of the day became king, and kept his ])lace just so long as he retained his following. Violent deaths were common ; the sultan's bodyguard was the most essential part of the constitution, and held a large portion of the land of Egypt on a species of feudal tenure. Each of the great lords was a Mameluke sultan in miniature, kept a bodyguard, lived in much state, and was generally prepared to fight his way to the throne should occasion favour the attempt. The streets of Cairo were frequently the scenes of sanguinary conflicts, and its citadel is full of the memories of treacherous assassinations. AVith all their excesses, however, it may be doubted whether Egypt ever since the days of the Pharaohs pos- sessed a more enlightened series of rulers than the Mamelukes. Their system of law and police, their military organisation and naval enterprise, their postal service, their inigation-works and engineering operations were far in advance of their time ; and, rough soldiers as they appear, they were munillcenl jjatrons of art and literature. Nearly all the exquis- ite mosques that still adorn Cairo, essentially the Mameluke city, are of their building, edticational institutions met with their unfailing support, and they carried their taste for refinement into the

MAMERS

MAMMALS

smallest details of house furniture ami decoration. The mu.seuins of Europe and Cairo are full of their delicate inlaid and engraved brass-work, wood carvings, ivory reliefs, enamelled glass, tiles and stone and plaster work, mosaic pavements, and silk embroideries. Their court ceremonies were gorgeous with the pomp of heraldry and armour and dazzling robes ; tlieir luxury at home was stupendous. Turks as a rule, they had tastes beyond the ken of the Ottoman Turks who dis- possessed them in 1517, and Egypt has not yet recovered from their loss. After the Turlcish conquest the government was placed in the hands of an Ottoman pasha assisted by a council ; whilst twenty-four Mameluke beys were allowed to admin- ister the provinces. The beys retained most of the power, however, and the pasha became a cipher. Their last brilliant achievements were on the occasion of Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798, when they fought the disastrous battle of the Pyramids near Cairo ; but after the retirement of the French and British armies Egypt became a prey to disorder, rival Mamelukes fought and intrigued, and order was not restored until ^Mohammed Ali established his authority as pasha under the Porte, and by two treacherous massacres, in 1805 and 1811, exterminated the Mameluke princes, save a small remnant who took refuge in the Sudan, where their medieval awuour was recently seen by the British forces employed against the Mahdi.

See AVeil, Geschichte der Khalij'cn; Quatremere, Makrizi's Histoire des Sultans Mamlouks ; S. Lane-Poole, Art of the Saracens in Ef/i/pt; Sir W". Muir, The Mame- luke or Slacc Di/naaty (1896).

Haulers, a town in the French dep. of Sartlie, on the Dive, 43 miles XXE. of Le Mans. Pop. 6288.

Hamiaiii della Rovere, Count Terexzio, born in 1800 at Pesaro, took a prominent part in the futile outbreak at the accession of Gregory XVI., and was compelled to flee to Paris, whence he returned to Rome in 1848 after the unconditional amnesty of Pius IX., and actually held office for three months in the papal ministry. He next with- drew to Turin, where he founded, with Gioberti, his famous society for promoting Italian unity. On the flight of Pius IX. from Home to Gaeta he re-entered the political arena, and was for a short period foreign minister in the revolutionary eabinet of Oaletti. On the fall of Rome he retired to (Jenoa ; in 1856 he was returned memlier of tlie Sardinian parliament, and in 1860 entered Cavour's ministry as minister of Instruction. He was appointed ambassador to Greece in 1861, to Swit- zerland in 1865, and died at Rome, 21st May 1885.

Among his writings are Del Rianovamento della filosofia antica Italiatui (1836), Poeti delV Eta rti^dia (1842), Del Papato (18.51). Confessioni d'uti Metajisico (LSi'i.-)), Tcorica della EelUiione e dello Statu (1868), La Reli'jione dell' Avenir (1879), besides books on special social and philosopliical problems, and treatises on vari- ous subjects. See his Life by Gasj)ari (1887).

Hainiuals (Mcunmalia, Lat. inamriui, 'a teat') form what is usually considered the highest class of backboned animals, including numerous orders, of which horse, elephant, and whale, dog, 1)eaver, and bat, anthropoid ape, and man himself are in difler- ent ways prominent illustrative types. Compared with birds, mammals are most notably character- ised by the greater development of their brains, and by the close connection between mother and otfs])ring ; but in both these res])ects there are grailes of excellence. Thus, the Monotremes (see Orxithorhyxchus, and EfHinxA) have simple brains and lay eggs; the Marsujiials (q.v. ) have also lagged behind in cereliral development and bring forth their young precociously after a short gestation ; while in the Jiigher onlers there are many steps in the perfecting of brains and wits,

and in the evolution of the organic connection between the unborn young and the mother. The habitats are also very varied, for though the great majority are terredrial — burrowers, ninners, leapeis, and climbers, a thoroughly aquatic habit is exhib- ited by the cetaceans, the .sea-cows, the seals and walruses, and many genera here and there, wliile the bats have the power of true flight, and many swooping forms, such as the flying opossums, squirrels, ami lemurs are more or less aerial (see Flying Animals). Similarly as regards food there is great variety, for fruit and insects, fish and herbs, roots and flesh, are all utilised, and the diversity of diet is associated with marked difler- ences in Dentition (q.v.). About 2300 living species have been recorded, varying in size from the smallest harvest-mouse, which is scarcely the weight of a haifi)enny, to the giant whales, which approach 100 feet in length.

General Characters. — It will be useful to refer to the article Birds, where the three highest cla.sses of vertebrates are contrasted ; but a more detailed summary- is now necessary. Female mammals always nouiish their young for some time after birth with the milk produced by the mammary glands. Except in the oviparous Monotremes, the young are born vi\iparously ; and in all mammals above Marsupials the embryo in the womb is organically connected with the mother by means of a Placenta (q.v.). The skin always bears at least some hairs, and these usually cover the whole body, so that most mammals may be justly called furred quadrupeds. In body-temperature, which is some index to the pitch of the life, mammals, though inferior to birds, are emphatically warm-blooded ; and in this connection we may notice that a comjdete muscular partition (midriif or diaphragm ) separates the breast from the abdom- inal cavity. The lungs lie freely and are invested by (pleural) sacs ; the heart is four-chaml)ered and gives olFa single aortic arch to the left side (to the rijht in birds) ; the red blood-corpuscles are non- nucleated when fully formed. The parts of the adult brain show a greater curvature than in lower forms, while the cerebral hemispheres predominate, become more and more convoluted, and are uniteu by an important bridge called the corpus callosum. Except in Monotremes, the rectal and the urino- genital apertures are separate ; and, with the same exception, the ova are small and poor in yolk, and undergo total segmentation. The skeletal charac- teristics are necessarily more technical, but it is important to notice that the skull moves not on one condyle as in birds and reptiles, but on two ns in amphibians ; the lower jaw is a single bone on each side, and articulates not with the quadrate as in Sauropsida but with the squamosal ; a chain of three ear-ossicles (malleus, incus, and stapes, prob- ably equivalent to the articular, quadrate, and columella or hyo-mandibular of lower forms ) con- nects the drum with the internal ear; the teeth, rarely quite absent, are set in distinct sockets ; the vertebra3 of tlie neck are (with three exceptions) seven in number ; the coracoid l>one ( except in Monotremes ) is a mere process of the scapula ; and so on. As the various systems are dealt with in special articles (see Brain, Circulation, Hair, Skull, &c. ), it seems unnecessary to expand the above summary.

The Sub-classes of Mammals. — \n 1816 De Blain- ville divided mammals into three subclasses, which sul)sequent investigation has Hrmly established. The two orders of Monotremes (duckmole and Echidna) and of Ma:-supials (kangaroo, opossum, Sec] he raised to the rank of sub-classes under the titles Ornithodelphia (lit. ' bird-wombed ') and Didelphia (lit. 'double -wombed'), in contrast to all the other mammals, which he termed Monodelphia.

MAMMALS

For these tliiee subclasses, wliich are distinct enoujjli to be regarded as separate branches of tlie jiriniitive niannnalian stock, Huxley i)roposed the less objectionable titles Prototheria, IMetatheria, and Eutheria. wliich are now generally adopted.

The most important contrasts l)ctween them may be snmmarisod in the following tabular scheme, whicii o\ight to be exfjanded and vivilied by refer- ence to tlie articles Oknithoruynchus, Eciiidna, Kangakoo, Marsupial, &c.

	Protutheria.	Jl,t:itliciia.	Kutlieri.a.
	Oriiitliodelphia.	Didelplii.-l.	Muiiodelphi.i.
Parturition	Mauutremes.	Mansupials.	Plucc'iitals.
Oviparous; obviously no placenta; (a temporary pouch in Echidna).	Precociously viviparous ; placenta incipient ; (a pouch for the young	Viviparous; placenta established in various
		except in some o])Ossums).	forms.
Ova	I^arge, rich in yoik, witli a .slight shell, with partial segmentation.	Small, with total segmentation and relatively large yolk-sac.	Small, with total seg- mentation. The yolk-
			sac is small except in
			Rodents, Insectivora,
			and Bats.
Mamm.e	None ; the glands open on a bare	Teats lie within the pouch. If that	The well-developed teats
	patch of "tlie skin, whence the	be present, and the milk is forced	are sucked by the
	seeietiou is licked off by the	into the mouth of the young.	young.
	young.
Brain	Small corpus callosum. Large anterior conimissure	Small. Large.	Large. Small.
	Cerebellum uncovered.	Uncovered.	Increasingly covered.
Temperatcire	25°-28° C.	32°-36° C.	35°-40° C.
Skeleton	The sutures of the skull-bones close,	The angle of the lower jaw is in-	The typical characters
	and the surface is polished. The	flected sharply inwards. There	of mammalia already
	rami of the lower jaw are free	are the usual epiphyses, much	noted. No epipubic
	and without an ascending pro-	reduced coracoids (mere pro-	bones, or at most slight
	cess. The three ear-ossicles have	cesses of the scapulae ), and almost	rudiments of tliem ; no
	primitive characters — e.g. large	always epipubic bones. The	marked inflection of
	malleus, small incus, rod-like	dentition is in most cases pecu-	tlie angle of the lower
	stapes. The vertebra; have no	liar.	jaw.
	terminal caps or epiphyses (as
	also in Sirenia). The pectoral
	girdle is reptilian-like, with cora-
	coids reaching sternum, with
	' interclavicle,' &c. There are
	marsupial or epipubic bones. No
	teeth in adults.
Other Peculiarities. . .	Heart somewhat bird-like. Cloaca	The urinogenital aperture is separ-	Ureters open into blad-
	persists. Oviducts very simple	ate from the rectal, but there is	der ; one vagina, and
	and quite separate. The testes	a slight cloaca. Ureters open	usually one uterus.
	abdominal, and the ureters open	into bladder. There are two	Scrotum, if present.
	into cloaca. Vasa deferentia are	uteri and two vaginse. The scro-	lies behind the penis.
	not continuous Avith the penis.	tum lies in front of the penis.

Orders of Mammals. — Leaving the Monotre- MATA (1)— duckmole and Echidna— and Marsu- pi.\lia (2) — kangaroo, oposstim, &c. — by themselves in marked contrast to one another and to the placental series, we begin the latter with two orders in many ways more primitive than the rest — viz. the Edentata (3)— sloths, ant-eaters, arma- dillos, &c. — and the Sirenia (4) — dugong and manatee. It seems possible to group the other

Artio-

dactvles

(d)

Primates (12).

— Perissodactyles (a)

— Elephants (6) Hyrax (c)

Cetacea— (9)

-RODENTIA (10)

CHIROP-

TERA ( 7 )

Insecti- I

VOEA (6)

Lemuroidea (11 )

—Dogs — Bear

Ungulata (8) Carnivor.\ (5)

Sirenia (4) Edentata (3)

Monotremes (1) ( Prototheria )

Primitive Placentals (Eutheria)

Marsupials (2) (Metiitheria)

Primitive Mammals

I

Reptilian (?) Ancestors

orders along three definite lines. One of these is es])ecially marked by the Carnivora (.'5)— cats, dogs, bears, and seals— to wliich the Insectia'ORA (6) — hedgehogs, moles, shrews — are apparently allied, wliile tliese in turn lead to the divergent CillRni'TEiiA (7) or bats, and to an aberrant genus — the flying lemur or Galeopithecus, for

which some would erect a special order. Another line is especially characterised by the great order Ungulata (S), including {a) Odd-toed or Perisso- dactyle forms — horse, rhinoceros, tapir, &c. — (b) Proboscideans or elephants, (c) the unique genus Hyrax, and (d) the Even-toed or Artiodactyle forms — sheep and cattle, chevrotains, camels, hippo- potamus, and pigs. But with the Ungulates there are many reasons for connecting two other orders, the Cet'acea (9) — whales and dolphin.s — and the Kodentia ( 10) — rats, hares, squirrels, i^'c. Finally, along a third bi-anch, which probably had its origin in a stock common to the Ungulates on the one hand, to the Carnivores and Insectivores on the other, we have to place the Lemuroidea (11) — lemurs— and the PRIMATES (12), the latter includ- ing tlio marmosets, the New-World monkeys, the Qld-World monkeys, and man himself.

Extinct Mammals. — (a) The oldest mammalian remains date from the Upper Trias — i.e. from near the beginning of the Mesozoic or Secondary system. Thus, fragments of a small animal known as Dromatherium suggest a primitive type, possibly ancestral to the Monotremes. [h) \n Jur.as.sic strata remains of small mammals are locally abundaTit, and represent more tlian one type of jNIarsupial. (c) From the next or Creta- ceous period, the beds of which are mostly of marine origin, other small types have recently rewarded tlie unwearying researches of Professor Marsh. (d) In the ))eginning of the Tertiary period, however, most of the modern orders of mam- mals have put in an appearance, and, as one would expect, there are remains of many types which form tlie common base of branches now widely divergent. Thus, the Crcodonta (e.g. Hya'nodon

MAMMALS

and Proviverra ) are primitive Carnivora, which show skeletal affinities with Marsupials and Insec- tivores. Not less remarkably generalised are the Condylarthra (e.g. Phenacodus and Periptychus), primitive Ungulates showing affinities with Artio- dactyles and Perissodactyles, with Hyracoidea and (through the Creodonta) with Carnivores, and (according to Cope) even with the Lemurs. Li the same way the palaiontologists find transitions

Fig. 1— Slab of Rock showing the left httiinl asp, ct of the skeleton of Phenacodus primccvus; from the Lower Eocene of North America : actual size of slab, 49 inches in length. (After Cope.)

between Insectivorous, Lemuroid, and Creodont types, between Perissodactyles and Proboscidea (Dinocerata and Coryphodonts), between Rodents and Ungulates (Mesotherium and Toxodon). So, too, a common base has been found for dogs and bears, for pigs and sheep, for deer and chevrotains ; but it is enough for our purpose to emphasise the fact, which rapidly progressive researcli continually corroborates, that in early Tertiary times there pei'sisted numerous generalised mammals which united many of the characteristics of our extant orders.

Distribution in Space. — Referring to the article on Geographical Distribution for the general results reached by the labours of Murray, Wallace, Sclater, and others, we shall content ourselves with a few illustrations showing the importance of the inquiry in regard to mammals. Perhaps the most striking of these concerns the great insular region of Australasia, where, with the exception of some bats and marine mammals which transcend the usual limits, of some rats and mice, and of forms intro- duced by man, the whole mammalian fauna con- sists of Marsupials and Monotremes. As all extant Marsupials, with the exception of the American opossums, are now Australasian, and as fossil remains of the sub-class are found as far away as Europe, we have here one of the most remark- able cases of gradual restriction and of the sa^■ing results of geological changes. For, whatever the pi'ccise details may be, there seems no doubt that geological insulation saved the Marsujjial immi- grants to Australia from the jaws of their pursuers.

In the Lemuroid group, again, we find 'one of the most singular phenomena in geographical dis- tribution.' For out of a total of fifty species thirty are confined to the one island of Mada- gascar, the remainder occurring through tropical Africa and in restricted portions of India and the Malay Islands — facts fronr which it is fairly con- cluded that in the insulated Madagascar ' the lowly organised Lemuroids diverged into specialised forms of their own peculiar type, while on the continents they have to a great extent become exterminated, or have maintained their existence in a few cases in islands or in uKJuntain-ranges.'

The Edentata (sloths and ant-eaters) have also a very restricted distribution in modern times, for, with the exception of the scaly ant-eaters or Manidne

(Ethiopian and oriental in range ) and the African aardvai-k, the home of the order is in South Americci,, where, moreover, in Pliijcene times there tiourished a giant race ' rivalling in bulk the rhinoceros and hip])opotamus. '

Just as naturally as terrestrial mammals are absent from Oceanic islands, so the aquatic Cetaceans have a world-wide distribution, and the Sirenians almost as wide as required conditions of temperature will admit. But it must be clearly noted that when we follow in detail the distribu- tion even of bats, whose great po\\ers of fliglit free them from the limitations imposed on teiTestrial mammals, we find that the inhabitants of special regions are usually marked oil' with perfect de- finiteness. The same local definiteness holds true of the world-wide (Australia always excepted) distribution of Ungulates, Rodents, and Carni- vores, and is signally illustrated, for instance, in the complete absence of Insectivora from South America alone, or in the striking differences between Old and New World monkeys.

Development. — The ova, which are small and poor in yolk except in Monotremes, Imrst from the ovaries into the upper ends of the oviducts, may be fertilised by ascending spermatozoa, and with the above exception develop in the lower portion of the female duct known as the uterus. In the ovi- parous Monotremes the segmentation is partial, like that of birds and reptiles ; in all the others the egg segments completely. The development proceeds in a fashion somewhat different in detail from that of the other vertebrates, but it is more important to notice that in the Placentals a close vascular connection is speedily established between the embryo and the wall of the uterus. In the hedgehog, which is a remarkably central type, this connection is first of all maintained simply by the outermost layer of the developing egg ; but this is soon abetted Ijy a union between the yolk-sac and the maternal wall, which in turn gives place to the true placenta, mainly due to the Allantois (q.v. ). The final result is an interlocking of the maternal tissue with that of the foetal membranes, and the whole life of the embryo depends on the intimacy of this interlocking, by Avhich the blood of the mother is vitally though not directly united with that of the offspring. At birth the union is severed, and the embryonic part of the placenta, with more or less of the associated lining of the uterus, is discharged. The form and structure of the ]ilacenta vary considerably in different orders, and have furnished important aid in determining relationship. Of mammals as of other animals it is true that the individual development recapitu- lates, in general outline, the history of the race, for the life lie^nns at the beginning again in a single cell, divides into a ball of cells, acquires a layered body, and passes from stage to stage pre- senting successively the general features of a verte- brate, of a reptilian (?), of a simple mammal, of an insectivore, and finally of a young hedgehog. Nursing remains somewhat crude in the oviparous Monotremes, which are destitute of teats, but the embryos have a considerable store of yolk which serves as preliminary cajjital. The eggs of the duckmole are laid in a nest, those of the Echidna seem to be borne in a temporary pouch suggesting that of Marsu])ials. In both cases the young lick the bare patch of skin on which the mammary glands open. The non-placental Marsupials are, in a sense, as Professor Flower says, ' the most mammalian of mammals,' since most of them carry their prematurely-born young in an external pouch surrounding the teats, whence the milk is forced into their passive n)oirths. In the placental mammals the young are born in a more advanced state, though still requiring mnch care. They are able

MAMMALS

to suck the inainnicT actively, and their hitherto unused food-qanals, gently tutored by the readily- dij,'ested milk, more or less rapidly acquire ^yhat S(dlas has happily termed a 'gastric education,' •which makes more substantial diet jtossible.

Uriqin of jMammals. — Tliough the duckmole and the Echidna lay eggs, and from the Tiature of their genital ducts liave been termed Ornithodelphia, their affinities are rather Avith reptiles than with birds. For mammals and birds represent divergent branches, tlie common stem of which is exceedingly j-omote. Recognising this, the tiieories as to tlie origin of mammals are mainly concerned with the ]>r()babilities in favour of a reptilian or of an am- piiibian ancestry. In support of the latter it has l»een urged that mammals and amphibia have two skull condyles, while birds and re2>tiles have one ; that the quadrate is small in the amphibians and mammals, large in Sauropsida ; that some other parts of the mammalian skeleton (such as the pehis) suggest affinities with amphibians rather than Sauropsida ; and even that the amphibians in their varied reproductive experiments are as likely as reptiles to have originated the characteristic mammalian parturition. On the other hand, the a priori probabilities are in favour of the reptilian origin of mammals, for the reptiles are in general differentiation more evolved. Among the numer- ous extinct Saurians the Tlieriomorpha distinctly approach mammalia in some of their skeletal characters, the large partially-segmenting ovum of the INIonotremes seems much liker that of reptiles than that of amphibians ( which exhibits total segmentation ), while it is not without interest that Uvo lizards show an incipient form of yolk- sac jilacenta. A compromise between the rival theories has been proposed by St George Mivart, who suggests a dual origin of mammals, deriving the Monotremes from Anomodont or allied reptilian types, the Marsujuals from a distinct and earlier source, perhaps amphibian. Another compromise, equally problematical, would derive mammals from a primitive stock of fingered quadrupeds, the common ancestors of amphibians and reptiles. On the whole, however, the balance of probabilities seems in favour of the origin of mammals from extinct Saurians, such as those which Cope has grou^jed as Tlieriomorpha. A few zoologists, who maintain the reptilian ancestry of mammals, and regard Cetaceans as a very primitive order, would derive these from the Ichthyopterygian reptiles ; but this view has been received witli virtually fatal criticism.

Ecoliifioji of Mammals. — Deeper than the prob- lem of determining whetlier mammals had their origin from amphibians or reptiles is that which inquires into the factors which actually contributed to their rise. That this must have been very gi'adual both the fossil forms and the grades which still persist plainly show, and it is important to realise what is indeed a general truth in regard to evolution, that many of the characteristic features of mammals are not so much new acquisitions as reconstructions and elaborations of what is old. The all-important mammary glands seem to be but modifications of the sebaceous glands diffused over the skin ; the placenta is chiefly composed of the allantois, which all young reptiles and birds possess ; the corjms callosiim, which forms a bridge between the cerebral liemisj)lieres, is already repre- sented in reptiles and amphibians. So, too, there is ample evidence of the very gradual evolution of special types and stinictures— witness the long series whicli connects the Eocene Eohippus, a five- fingered, three-tned ungulate, about the size of a fox, with the modern Horse (q.v. ; see also FoOT) ; or the evolution of brains from the small casts found inside the skulls of some of the early giants

Anchitherium.

Mesohippus.

to .such types as are exhibited by INIonotreme and Marsupial, .and from these upwards to the climax in man ; or the gradual

growth of Antlers (q.v.) Fore Hind

? -.r- i- * 1 ' fu„t, foot.

from Miocene times on- wards, a history rapidly recapitulated in the life Recekt, of modern stags. But Equus. after realising the gradual development of types and structures, and appreciat- ing the influence of natural Tliocene, selection in determining Pliobippus. distribution, in eliminat- ing giants, in fostering swiftness and strength, and in justifying big Protohippus, brains, many naturalists Hipparion. still find the problem of the evolution of mammals incompletely solved. It seems necessary to follow Miocene, the school of Lamarck in ^f'°l"pP"l'. recognising the inheritable eii'ccts of use and effort, and the influence of a changeful environment on the progressive growth of the organism in definite directions. Furthermore, an account of the evolu- tion of mammals has to take account of one of Eocene, the most prominent char- Orohippus. acteristics, the maternal sacrifice expressed in the placental union, in the prolonged gestation ( em- pig. 2.— Fore and Hind Feet phasised many years ago of the Horse and its ex- by Robert Chambers), and tinct Ancestors, in the lacteal nutrition

after birth, a sacrifice which must have been one of the most important factors in the progress of mammals. After a while the mammalian mater- nity (perhaps pathological at first and always expensive) must have paid or justified itself; but its recognition as ' a subordination of self- preserving to species- maintaining, of nutritive struggle to rejiroductive sacrifice,' is a necessary corrective to the preva- lent theory which tends to emphasise too exclu- sively the competitive struggle for individual

Intelligence and General Life. — Through the mammalian series, from the ' frog-witted ' duckmole to the highest of the Primates, there is a gradual increase in complexity of brains and quickness of wits. The remarkably docile intelligence of the dog, the cleverness of the highly-evolved elephant, the ingenuity or the'

Fig. 3.— Skulls and Casts of Brains of Eocene Manuuals:

A, Tillotherium fodiens;

B, Brontotherium ingens;

C, Coryphodon haniatus ;

D, Dinoceras mirabile.

(After Marsh.)

social beavers, and the ' humanness'of the higher apes are crowning illus- trations which become all the more remarkable when we recall the minute brains of early mammals. A contrast between those types whicli excel and those which lag behind will also illustrate Spencer's

MAMMARY GLAND

MAMMOTH CAVE

conclusion that the rate of leproiliiction varies inversely with the degree of individuation, for in the more highly-developed forms the number of offspring tends to diminish, while the parental care and love proportionally increase. The adapta- tions to diverse habits and diets, the varying length of life and the means of avoiding death, the migra- tions of some and the hibernations of others, the struggle for mates as -well as for food, the evolution of family-life and even of social sympathies are subjects of inquiry which will well repay observa- tion and further study of mammals.

For general works on mammals, see British Museum Catalogues ; Bronn's T/uVrrcic/i—' Mammalia,' by Giebel and Leche ; Flower in Encii. Brit. ; Lydekker s British Mammals^ (1895); Bell's British Quadrupeds (2d ed. Lond. 1874); Vogt and Speclit, Mannauls (trans. Edin. 1887); Cassell's iV^a<. Hist., vols, i.-iii., ed. by P. Martin Duncan ; The Riverside or Standard Natural Historii, vol. v., ed. by .J. S. Kingsley (Lond. and New York, 1888). The last mentioned lias a general biblio- graphy. A treasui-y both of information and illustra- tion is to be found in Brelim's Thierlehen (new ed. 1890). For general structure, see the text-books of Owen, Huxley, Gegenbaur, Wiedersheim, EoUeston and Hatehett Jackson, and Flower's Osteolo;!)/ of the Mam- malia (3d ed., along with Gadow, Lond. 1885). For his- tory and evolution of mammals, sec "W. K. Parker, Mam- malian Descent (Lond. 1881); O. Sclunidt, Mammalia in relation to Primeval Times ( Inter. Sc. Series, Lond. 1885) ; tiie papers of Cope and Marsh in the Reports of the U.S. Geol. Survey ; Xicliolson and Lydekker, 3fanual of Paheontolof/ii {Yidin. 1889); the relevant works of Dar- win, Wallace, Haeckel, &c. ; Huxley, Pi-oc. Zool. Soc. (Lond. 1880); Cope's Ori;nn of the Fittest (New York, 1887 ). For distribution, see A. Murray, Geogr. Dist. of Mammals (Lond. 1866); A. E. Wallace, Geor/r. Dist. of Animals (Lond 1876) ; Heilprin (Inter. Sc. Series, Lond. 1888).

mammary Gland. See Breast.

llammee Apple (Mammea americana), a highly-esteemed fruit of the West Indies ( where it is sometimes called the Wild Apricot ) and tropical America. It is jjroduced by a beautiful tree of the natural order Guttiferre, 60 to 70 feet high. The fruit is roundish, from the size of a hen's egg to that of a small melon, Avith a thick, leathery rind, and a very delicate inner rind adhering closely to the pulp, which must be carefully removed on account of its bitter taste. The pulp is firm and bright yellow, with a peculiar sweet and very agree- able taste, and a pleasant aromatic odour. — A similar fruit is produced by Mumnica africana, an African species.

mammoth, the name (originally Tartar, through the Russian) for an extinct ele^h&Jit [Eleplias primi- ffetiius), whose remains are sufliciently common in the recent deposits of northern Europe and Asia to afford a valuable supply of fossil ivory. In geo- logical time, it is only as it were yesterday that the mammoth ceased to live, for its remains are often found along with those of man, and it seems to have persisted in Britain until after the Glacial Period. The cave-dwellers made use of its tusks, and on these too the prehistoric artists — the literal old masters — cut with no tyro hand the outlines of reindeer and various animals, including the mam- motli itself. But the comparatively recent decease of this monster elephant has been repeatedly evi- denced in a startling way by the discovery in Siberia of almost intact specimens, standing up- right in the ice and frozen soil, with hair and skin, muscles and viscera, as well as bones, all well preserved. The first fairly complete mammoth recorded was disinterred from the ice near the mouth of the Lena in 1806 ; the fisherman who discovered it had overcome liis awe to the extent of cutting off the tusks, wild animals had gnawed the muscles, but the hair was still on the uninjured

parts of the skin, the l)rain in the skull, and the eyes still stared from their sockets. Oiheis have since been disinterred, or wasJied out in great thaws, notably one in 1846 which was so marvel- lously preserved that the stomach still showed j'oung shoots of fir and pine, and a quantity of chewed cones. Great numbers that we know

Mammoth.

nothing of must have been similarly thawed out, and their frozen corpses s^ept seaward to swell the accumulations of their remains found in the Arctic seas. Their disinterment after thaws ex- plains the old Siberian opinion that the mammoths were monster burrowers, which died when they came to the surface, a\ hile the upright position in which the intact forms have been found suggests that they had been smothered where they were buried by sinking heavily into the tundra marsh. Though mammoths in complete preservation are rare, their tusks, teeth, and other bones have been found in great abundance from almost every county in England to Behring Strait, and thence into North America.

'The whole appearance of the animal,' one of the discoverers wiites, ' was fearfully wild and strange. Our elephant is an awkward animal, Imt compared with this mammoth it is as an Araldan steed to a coarse ugly dray-horse.' It stood 13 feet high, 15 feet in length, with tusks 8 feet long ; but some other specimens seem to have been larger. The dark skin was covered with yellowish to reddish soft wool about an inch long, with inter- spersed ]>rownish hairs of 4 inches, and much sparser and longer black bristles. ' The giant was thus well protected against the cold.' Tlie mammoth was liker the Indian than the African survivor, Init it is only one of a crowd of fossil Proboscidea dis- tributed in Tertiary dejiosits over all the great continents. Mammoth, ]Ma.stodon, and Dinothe- rium are the three most prominent types. Most of them were giant animals, but there seem also to have been pigmies no larger than sheep. (Jnce numerous and Avidespread, the elephants are now re])resented only by the two modern specie.s of restricted distribution. To this result many factors, such as the voracity of Carnivores, the deforesting of countries, the changes of climate, and the ex])en- siveness of great bulk, have contributed. The ivory exported in large quantities from Siberia is in great part collected from the isl.ands, some of which are almost literally heaps of mammoth bones.

See Eleph.\xt; also, for facts, not inferences, H. H. Howorth's Mammoth and the Flood (1887); Xorden- skiold's Vomoe of the Vena : Boyd Dawkins, in Quart Journ. Geol. So'-.' XXXV. "(1879).

mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, is 85 miles by rail SSW. of Louisville. The cave is about 10 miles long ; but it is said to require upwards of 150 miles of travelling to explore its multitudinous

MAMMOTH CAVE

MAN

avenues, chambers, frrottoes, rivers, and cataracts. The main cave is only 4 miles long, but it is from 40 to 300 feet wide, and rises in height to 125 feet. Lucy's Dome is 300 feet high, the loftiest of the maii'y vertical shafts that pierce through all the levels. Some avenues are covered with a continu- ous incrustation of the most beautiful crystals ; stalactites and stalagmites abound. There are several lakes or rivers connected with Green River outside the cave, rising with the river, but subsiding more slowly, so that they are generally impassable for more tlian six months in the year. The lai-gest is Echo River, three-fourths of a mile long, and in some places 200 feet wide. The air of the cave is pure ; the temperature keeps at about 54°.

There is an elaborate work on The Mammoth Cave of Kcntnchu by H. C. Hovey and K. E. Call (1S97); for the fauna, see works cited at Cave ; A. S. Packard, The Inhabit.nits of the Mammoth Care (1872); and a memoir on 'The Cave Fauna of North America ' (ISSS).

Ulan* As the races of mankind, the structure and functions of the human body, and the higher activities most distinctive of man are discussed in special articles, it is enough here to restrict atten- tion to three problems : ( 1 ) the human charac- teristics, (2) the origin or descent of man, and (3) the antiquity of the race.

(1) Charuderistics. — Considered like any other organism, man is strictly the highest of the Primates, diftering from the anthropoid apes only in degree. In adult life he is unique in his erect posture, and in the freedom of his hands from any direct share in locomotion. His body is unusually naked, his canine teeth are not longer than their neighbours, his thumbs are larger and more opjjos- abie than those of monkeys, and his feet are dis- tinguished by the horizontal sole which rests flatly on the ground, 1)y the projecting heel, and by the non-opposable great toe which normally lies quite parallel to the others. His face is notal)ly more vertical than that of apes, lying below rather than in front of the forepart of the brain-case ; the jaws, the orbits, and the ridges above them are relatively sm.aller ; the nose-bones project more beyond the upper jaw ; and the chin is more pronunent than in other Primates. A much more momentous characteristic, however, is involved in the fact that the normal brain of an adult man is more than twice as heavy as that of the nearest monkeys, for this structural advance is an index to that intellectual and emotional development which raises even the savage many degrees above the brute, and which in its highest realisation is still full of promise. Therefore, while all naturalists allow, with Professor Owen, that there is 'an all- pervailing similitude of structure ' between the human body and that of the anthropoid apes, there is equal agreement that in intelligence, emotions, and controlled conduct man is pre-eminent.

Hut, apart from these zoological considerations, it is interesting to notice some statistical results in regard to human (and especially British) charac- teristics derived from the Report (1890) of the Anthropometric Committee of the P>ritish Associa- tion. Tiius, the average height of man is 5 ft. 54: in., the Polynesians leading the way with an average of 5 ft. 9-33 in., the English professional class following with 5 ft. 9-14 in., and so on, down to the Rushmen, who average 4 ft. 4-78 in. As to the adult population of Britain, in height the Scotch stand first (68-Gl in.), tiie Irish second (67-90 in.), tlie English third (67-30 in.), and the Welsh last (66-66 in.), the average being 67-66 in. The Scotch are also first in weight (165-3 lb.), the Welsh second (158-3 11).), the English third (155 lb.), and Irish fourth (154-1 lb.), the average being 158-2 lb. Again, a typical adult Englishman has a stature of 5 ft. 7^ in., a chest girth of 36^ in., a

weight of 10 stone 10 lb., and is able to draw, as in drawing a bow, a weight of 77i lb. As to the sexes (in England), the average male stature and weight is 67-36 in. and 155 lb., as against 62-65 in. and 122-8 lb. for the women. ]Moreover, the men are about twice as strong. For further results, many of which are of profound practical suggestiveness, the Report should be consulted.

(2) Origin or Descent of Man. — Even when we confine our attention to the opinions of those who accept the theory of evolution as a modal ex[)lana- tion of nature, we are in fairness bound to recognise some diversity of opinion in regard to the origin of man. ( o ) So unique does he appear to some that his descent from a humbler organism seems in- credible— a position in favour of which some argu- ments will be found in the cited Avorks of A. de Quatrefages. ( b ) Alfred Russel Wallace and others 'reject the idea of "special creation " for man, as being entirely unsupported by facts, as well as in the highest degree improbable,' yet believe that his progress from the brute was due to introduction of new causes, or 'spiritual influxes,' to which the higher human characteristics owe their origin. (c) The majority of naturalists deem this hypo- thesis of special spiritual influx inconsistent with the continuity of evolution, which they regard as a ' natural ' process, self-sufficient throughout, for the origin of man as for other grand results.

The arguments which go to show that man is descended from a simpler animal are, of course, the same as those which substantiate the general theory. Thus, his structure and functions are not demonstrably different in kind from those of the nearest Primates ; he develops from a fertilised egg-cell, and passes through successively higher grades of organisation in a manner which seems only interpretable as the recapitulation of ancestral history ; he varies as other animals do, is subject to similar diseases, and exhibits numerous reversions and rudimentary structures which are enigmas, except on the theory that he had his origin from an ape-like stock. How his evolution Mas brought about is a problem requiring much elucidation, but among the special factors which conduced to evolve his higher characteristics of wisdom and gentleness it seems reasonable to attach much importance to the necessity for cunning in the struggle A\ith stronger mammals, to the consequences of the pro- longed weakness of infancy, to the influences of family life and of the indispensable combination into larger aggregates. As to the future, if we dis- regard minor changes — e.g. in hair and teeth, for which fashion and 'civilisation' are responsible — it seems almost certain, as Herbert Spencer has emphasised, that the progressive evolution of man must be restricted to intellectual and emotional qualities.

(3) Antiquity of the iiocc— From the human remains, and far more frequently from the weapons, tools, and other vestiges of human activity, found in the more lecent deposits on the earth's surface, it is obviously legitimate, after due caution, to infer the presence of man at the time — certainly jiot estimable in the years of any chronological system — when these beds were formed. Cuvier and others tried, indeed, to avoid this conclusion — for instance, by exaggerating the power of floods in mixing up recent deposits ; while Bouchei- de Perthes, who in 1836 discovered flint axes along with mammoth bones in undisturbed strata 20-30 feet below the surface, had to wait almost twenty years for a fair hearing, and yet longer for decisive corroboration. Both were gained, however, and the conversion of naturalists may be dated fiom 1863, when Lyell summarised the existing evidence in his Antiquitji of Man. Since then the problem has been worked at with ever-increasing energy

Creation.	Lnnt;evity.
Ethics.	Marriage.
Ethnology.	Jlythology.
Evolution.	Negro.
Family.	Philology.
Folklore.	Religion.
Government.	Sex.
Life.	Toteniism.

and success, and there is now general agreement that man was alive during the later stages of the glacial epoch, wiule there are indications of his presence in Pliocene and, according to a few, even in Miocene ages (see Geology).

Older, however, than any indications of his Pliocene presence man must surely be, for zoolo- gists refer his origin not to any of the existing anthropoid apes, as is sometimes popularly sup- posed, but to the common stock which included their ancestors and his, and which had apparently begun to diverge in Upper Miocene times. In a similar way, our impression of the antiquity of man is increased when we remember that tlie most ancient human remains, such as the Neanderthal skull, do not take us appreciably nearer any low type of man such as the ancestral forms presum- ably exhibited. Moreover, the oldest d^istinct im- plements and artistic products suggest not the handicraft of beginners, but the work of men behind whom there already lay a long history.

See Anthropoid Apes, Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, Earth, Flint Implements, Pleistocene, Skele- ton, Skull ; the articles on the various continents, countries, and races ; also the following articles :

Adam.

Agriculture.

Anatomy.

Animal

Antliropology.

Archaiology.

Art.

Biology.

Also Darwin, The Descent of Man (1871); Dawkins, Cave-Himtinn (187-4), Early Man in Britain (1880) ; A. Geikie, The Great Ice Age (1877), Prehistoric Europe (1881); Haeckel, Anthropogenie (2d ed. 1874; Eng. tran.s. 1879); Hartniann, Anthropoid Apes (Inter. Sc. Series, 18S5); Huxley, Man's Place in Nature (1863); Lyell, Geoloiiical Evidences of the Antiquiti/ of Man (1863); St 'George Mivart, Man and Apes (1874); Peschel, Races of Man (trans. 1876); Caspari, Urgc- schichte der Menschheit (2d ed. 1877); Mortillet, ie Prehistoriqne Antiquite de V Homme ( 1885) ; Quatrefages, L'Esp^ce Humaine (1861), Histoire Generale des Races Humaines (1887); J. Ranke, Der Mensch (1886); Toiiinard, fitments d' Anthropologic Generale (1885); A. R. Wallace, Darivinism (1889); Wiedershehn, Der Bail des Menschen (1887); C. Vogt, Vorlesungen iibcr den Menschen (1864; trans. 1864) ; and Tylor's works.

Ulan, Isle of, is situated in the Irish Sea, 16 miles S. of Burrow Head in Wigtownshire, 27 miles SW. of St Bees Head, and 27 E. of Strangford Lough. The length of the island is 33| miles, breadtii 12^ miles, and area 145,325 acres (227 sq. m. ), of which nearly 100,000 are cultivated. At the south-western extremity is an islet called the Calf of Man, containing 800 acres, a large portion of which is under cultivation. A chain of mountains extends from nortli-east to south.-v.'est, the highest of which is Snaefell (2024 feet). In some of the streams trout abound, though in many the fish have Ijeen destroyed by the washings from tlie lead-mines. The coast-scenery from Maugiiold Head on the east, passing south to Peel on the west, is bold and picturesque, especially in the neighbourhood of the Calf, wiiere Spanisii Head, the southern extremity of the island, {>resents a sea-front of extreme grandeur.

The greater part "of the island consists of clay- slate under various modifications. Through the clay-schist granite has burst in two localities, in the vicinity of which mineral veins have been dis- covered, and are extensively worked. Nearly 5000 tons of lead are extracted annually, considerable quantities of zinc, and smaller quantities of copper and iron ; tlie lead ore is very rich in quality. Tiie principal mines are at Laxey on the east coast, and Foxdale near the west. The Great Laxey Mine is one of the most important in tlie United Kingdom.

Tlie climate is remarkable for the limite<l range of temperature, both annual and diurnal ; westerly and south-westerly winds greatly predominate, easterly and north-easterly winds occiirring cliielly in the autumn quarter. Myrtles, fuchsias, and other tender exotics flourish throughout the year. The flora of tlie island is almost identical with that of Cumberland. The Manx cat is tailless (see Cat).

The fisheries afford employment to nearly 4000 men and 1)oys. More tiian 700 boats are employed in the iierring and cod fisheries, the average annual produce being al)ove £60,000. Large numbers of fat cattle are shipped to the English markets, as well as about 20,000 quarters of wheat annually. The manufactures are inconsiderable. Tlie revenue derived from the island amounts to about £50,000 per annum ; of this the greater part is received from customs duties, and the whole, except £10,000 a year payable to the imperial treasury, is used for insular purposes.

The Isle of IMan possesses much to interest the antiquary. Castle Rushen (see Castletown), probably the most perfect building of its date extant, was founded by Guthred, son of King Orry, in 947. The ruins of Rushen Abbey (1154) are picturesquely situated at Ballasalla. Peel Castle, with the cathedral of St German, is a very beautiful ruin, dating from the 12tli century (see Peel). There are numerous so-called Druidical remains and Runic monuments throughout the island ; the Runic crosses, of which there are some forty in all, are especially numerous at Kirk Michael. The Tynwald Hil'l at St Joim's, near the centre of tlie island, is a perfect relic of Scandi- navian antiquity. Once a year new Acts of Tyn- wald are here proclaimed. The hill is artificial, circular, and arranged in four platforms. Both institution and use should be compared with tiie Icelandic Tingvalla. The island is divided into six sheadings ; these into seventeen parishes ; these, again, were divided into trcens (now obsolete), and, lastly, into quarter-lands. Tlie towns, noticed separately, are Castletown, Douglas, the modern capital. Peel, and Ramsey.

Tiie principal line of communication with the United Kingdom is between Douglas and Liver- pool, by means of a fine fleet of swift steamers. There is a submarine telegraphic cable between Maughold Head and St Bees Head. In 1873 a line of railway was opened Itetween Douglas and Peel ; in 1874 to Castletown and the south; and in 1879 to Ramsey — all on the single narrow-gauge system. Extensive improvements in the way of harbour- works, jners, and promenades have been carried out at Douglas, Ranisev, and Peel. Pop. ( 1821 ) 40,081 ; (1841)47,986; (1871)54,042; (1881)54,089: (1891) 55,598, the sniallness of the increase being attributable to emigration. Visitors number about 130,000 annuallv.

The Roman 'Mona was not Man, but Anglesey. Previous to the 6th century the history of the Isle of Man is involved in obscurity ; from tha,t period it was ruled by a line of Welsh kings, until near the end of the '9th century, when the Nor- wegian, Harald Haarfager, invaded and took pos- session of tiie island. A line of Scandinavian kings succeeded, until jMagnus, king of Norway, ceded ins right in the island and the Hebrides to Alexander III. of Scotland (1266); this trans- ference of claim being tlie direct result of tiie disastrous failure of tiie expedition of Haco of Norway against tiie Scots in 1263. On Alex- ander's death the Manx placed tiiemselves under the protection of Edward I. of England by a formal instrument dated 1290 ; on tiie strengtli of this document tlie kings of England granted the island to various royal favourites from time

10

MAN

MANASSEH

to time until 1406, when it was granted to Sir John Stanley in perpetuity, to be held of the crown of England, by rendering to the king, his heirs, and successors, a c;ist of falcons at their coronation. The Stanley family continued to rule the island under tlie title of Kings of Man, until 1651, wiien the style of Lord was adopted. In the same year tiie island was surremlered to a parlia- inentaVy force by Receiver-general Christian, who Iiad raised an armed body against tlie govern- ment, tiien in the hands of the Countess of Derby. Parliament granted the island to Lord Fairfax ; but on tlie Kestoration the Derby family were again put in jiossession. On the death of James, tenth Earl of Derby, without issue in 1735, James, second Duke of Atiiol, descendeil from the youngest daughter of James, seventh Earl of Derby, became Lord of Man. The Isle of Man having been for a long period the seat of an extensive smuggling trade, to tlie detriment of the imperial revenue, the sovereignty of it was purchased by the British government, in 1765, for £70,000 and an annuity of £2000 a year, the duke still retaining certain manorial rights, church patronage, &c. The last remaining interest of the Athol family in the island was transferred to the British crown in 1829 ; the amount paid for the island having amounted in the aggregate to £493,000.

The Isle of Man forms a separate liishopric under tlie title of Sodor and ^lan. The bishopric of the Sudoreys — Scandinavian for 'Southern Isles' — was for a time annexed to Man ; hence the title of Sodor, which is still' retained, the name having been applied to the islet of Holm Peel, on which the cathedral church of the diocese stands. Tliis bishopric is said to have been founded by St Patrick in 447. Among the bishops the most famous was Thomas Wilson (q.v. ), the author of Sacra Privata. The Manx Church has its own canons, and an independent convocation. The see is, for certain purposes, attached to the province of York ; the bishop sits in the House of Lords, but does not vote.

The Isle of Man has a constitution and govern- ment of its own, to a certain extent independent of the imperial parliament. It has its own laws, law-officers, and courts of law. The legislative body is styled the Court of Tynwald, consisting of the Lieutenant-governor and Council — the latter being composed of the bishop, attorney-general, two deemsters (or judges), clerk of the rolls, Avater bailiff, archdeacon, and vicar-general — and the House of twenty-four Keys, or representa- tives. A bill is separately considered by both branches, and on being passed by them is" trans- mitted for the royal assent ; it does not, however, become law until it is promulgated in the English and Manx languages on the Tynwald Hill. The House of Keys was formerly self-elective ; but in 1866 an act was passed establishing an election by the people every seven years ; and a bill passed in 18S0 to amend this act abolished the property qualification for mem1)ers, granted household sutt- rage in towns, £4 owner and £6 tenant franchise in the country, and conferred the suffrage on women. Tiie armorial bearings of Man are three legs in armour conjoined at the thiglis. The Manx people are of Celtic origin, with a strong dash of the Scandinavian. Tlie language belongs to the Goidelic group of tlie Celtic languages (see Celts). It is noM- but little spoken. Church service in the Manx language has l)een discontinued since the middle of the 19tli century. There is no literature Ijeyond a few songs and carols. The Prayer-liook was' trans- lated into Manx in 1765, the Bible in 1772. A dictionary was com])iled in 1835. Some account of the native superstitions will be found in the notes to Pevcril of the Peak.

Down to the middle of the 19th century the island was almost exempt from taxation, and con- sequently looked upon as a cheap place of resi- dence, Avhile its laws were available for the protec- tion of English debtors. All this has long ceased. Taxation, locally imposed, has been introduced for various purposes ; and, though there is no poor- law, rates in aid are not unknoMn. The influx of visitors, and tlie facilities for exporting native produce, have equalised prices Mith those obtain- ing in the surrounding countries, and the social condition has been much modified.

See The Isle of Man, by the Eev. J. G. Gumming ; Historif of the Isle of Man, by Joseph Train ; Brown's Popular Guide; Chronica Reijam Mannia', edited by Munch ( Christiania, 1860) ; Surnames and Place Haines of Man, by A. ^y. Moore, preface by Prof. Rhys (1890)"; Hall Caine, 2'he Little Manx Nation (1891 ) ; and the publica- tions of the 'Manx Society ( 19 vols. 1858-68).

Ulaunar', Gulf of, lies between Ceylon and the Madras coast, and is closed on the north by a low reef of rocks and islands called Adam's Bridge. Its extreme Avidth is nearly 200 miles. The gulf is famous for its pearl-fisheries.

Ulaiiacor', a town of Majorca, in a fertile plain, 30 miles E. of Palma by rail. Pop. 14,929.

Ulaiia'gua, the capital of Nicaragua, lies in a fertile district, on the south shore of Lake INIanagua, 53 miles by rail SE. of Leon, and has perhaps 10,006 inhal)itants. For the lake, see Leon.

Ulaiiakill, a name applied to various birds of the South American group of Chatterers, amongst others to the Cock of the Rock (q.v.). See also

COTIXGA.

MaiiaoSii capital of Amazonas province, in the United States of Brazil, is on the Rio Negro, 12 miles above its confluence with the Amazons. An ugly, whitewashed cathedral rises in the centre of the town, which also boasts a custom-house, a tiny fort, and a military hospital. It is a steamboat station, and has a considerable trade in various forest-products, but principally in india-rubber. The population, though often stated at 25,000 to 30,000, is under 12,000. _

Ulaiiassai^, formerly Manassas Junction, a village close to Bull Run (q.v.). The Confederates called their two victories here the first and second battles of jNIanassas.

Ulaiiasseh, the name of the eldest son of Joseph. The tribe of Manasseh received land on both sides of the Jordan (see Palestine).— Man- asseh was also the name of one of the kings of Judah (the fourteenth), who succeeded his father Hezekiah, 697 or 699 B.C., at the age of twelve, and reigned, according to the narrative, for fifty- five years. He rushed headlong into all manner of idolatry, and seduced the people to follow his example. Carried prisoner to Babylon, he re- pented, and his prayer was heard (2 Chron. xxxiii. ). ■ — The apocryphal composition called the Prayer of Maiias-ics, found in some MSS. of the Septuagint, was never positively received as canonical.

niaiiasscll ben Israel, Jewish scholar, was born at Lisbon in 1604, fled with his father from the Inquisition, and settling at Amsterdam became chief ra1)bi of the synagogue there. In 1656 he visited England, seeking to secure (see Jews, Vol. VI. p. 328) from Cromwell the readmission of the Jews. He died at Mithiclburg in 1657. He pub- lished texts of various parts of the Old Testament, with notes ; De Creatione Problemata XXX. ( 1635 ) ; De la Ecsurreccion de los Mnertes (1636) ; Dc Ter- mine Vita; ( 1639 ) ; Esperanca de Israel ( 1650 ) ; Vin- dicice Judworinn, or a Letter in Answer to Questions jrropounded (Lond. 1656) ; and Hwnble Address to the Lord Protector on behalf of the Jewish Nation (1656).

MANATEE

31 A XC HESTER

11

Manatee {Manatus), one of the 'sea-cows' or Siienia, allied to the Dugong (q.v. ) and to the extinct lihytina. Two species, very like one another in structure and habit, are distinguished, M. aiistrcdis, in the rivers and estuaries of the Atlantic side of tropical South America, and M. senegcdensis, in the Senegal and other rivers of West Africa. They are gregarious, inotl'ensive, sluggish mammals, browsing on alg?e, fresh-water Aveeds, and even shore-plants. In regard to their breeding and parturition information is still re- quired, Ijut we know that the mothers shoAv much art'eetion for the young, and protect them in danger. In length the manatee measures from 10 to 12 feet ; the colour of the thick, wrinkled, hairless hide is dark bluish gray, lighter as usual on the ventral surface. The upper lip bears a rounded knob, and

Manajee.

there are yellow bristles about the mouth ; the eyes are small and deeply sunk, and the nostrils are valved slits at the end of the snout. From the dugong^s they differ in having a thicker body and a straigditer head, with the jaws but slightly curved, in the rounded or shovel-like shape of the tail, and in the presence of rudimentary nails on the fore-limbs, to the hand-like form of 'which the word Manatee refers. They differ also in more technical characters — e.g. in the very exceptional occurrence of six instead of seven neck vertebne, and in the Dentition (q.v.), which in the adult manatee is represented by horny pads rejjlacing the front teeth lost in early life, and by \\ ridged molars, of which, however, only % are in use at a time. The manatee, though becoming scarcer, is still harpooned or otherwise caught, being valued on account of its palatal)le flesh, its abundant fat, and its strong skin. Gentle and affectionate, it readily admits of being tamed, and living speci- mens have been successfully transported to the Zoo in London.

See DUGOXG ; and also the memoirs by Murie and Garrod in the Trans. Zool. Soc, vols. viii. x. xL

Ulailbliuill. a district forming the eastern part of Chota Nagpore (q.v.).

Masiby, George William, inventor of life- saving apparatus for shipwrecked persons, was born in 1765, at Hilgay, near Downham IMarket in Norfolk, served in the militia, and became barrack-master at Yarmouth in 1803. In 1808 he succeeded, with apparatus designed by him, in sav- ing the lives of the crew of the brig Elizabeth. A career of usefulness was thus commenced, which he followed for the remaining forty-six years of his life. He repeatedly received grants of money from parliament. He died November 18, 1854. It was estimated that, by the time of his death, nearly 1000 persons had been rescued from stranded ships by means of his apparatus. See LiFE-SAViXG Apparatus.

Manelia, La, a district of Spain, the southern- most part of the old kingdom of New Castile, com- prising most of the present province of Ciudad Real, with parts of Albacete, Toledo, and Cuenca ( see Castile ). It is the country of the ever-memor- able Don Quixote, his squire Sancho Panza, and of the peerless Dulcinea del Toboso.

Maiiclie ('sleeve"), a maritime department in the north-west of France, formed from the old pro- vince of Normandy, dei-ives its name from La Manche (the English Channel), which washes its rocky coasts. Greatest length, 81 miles ; average breadth, 28 miles; area, 2289 sq. m. Pop. (1872) 5-14,776; (1891)513,815. Tiie climate is mild but humid. Cereals, flax, hemp, beetroot, and fruits are extensively cultivated. Immense quantities of apples are grown, from which 28,000,000 gallons of cider are made annually. Horses of the true Norman breed are reared, and excellent cattle and sheep are fed on the extensive pastures. There are valuable granite quarries. The depart- ment is divided into the six arrondissements of St L6, Coutances, Valognes, Cherbourg, Avranches, and iNIortain. Capital, St Lo. The port of Cher- bourg and the rock of St ^lichel (with its celebrated abbey ) belong to this department.

Manchester (Sax. Mamcestre), a corporate and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, was elevated to the dignity of a city in 1847, by bein^ made the see of a bisliop, and confirmed by royal charter in 1853. It is situated in the hundred' of Salford, on the east bank of the Irwell. Salford is on the opposite bank ; and the two boroughs, connected by sixteen bridges (besides railway viaducts), may be considered one city. ]Manchester is the acknow- ledged centre of the most extensive manufacturing district in the v.-orld, and is remarkable from being suiTounded Ijy a ring of populous suburban town- ships formed from the overflow of its population. Within a few miles there is a second circle of towns, with populations ranging from 10,000 to 50,000. At a radius of 30 miles is another cluster of towns, nearly all of them manufacturing, and to all of Avhich there is easy and frequent access by tramways, canals, and railways. Manchester is 187 miles NNW. of London, 31 E. of Liverpool, 5H SE. of Lancaster, 84 N. of Birmingham, 68^ NW. of York, 4Si S^\'. of Leeds, 414 NW. of Sheflield, and 40 NE. of Chester. The following table shows the growth of the population of the two boroughs :

M.iiiche^ter. SalforJ. Total.

ISOl 75,275 14,477 89,752

l?5l .303,382 102,449 405,831

1S71 351,189 124,801 475,990

ISSl 462.303 176,235 638,538

1891 505, 343 198, 136 703,479

B\' the City Extension Act of 1885 the parlia- mentary T)Oundaries were greatly extended, and later an agit.ation was liegun in various suburban townships for incorporation. Five of these were already incorpoi-ated with Manchester in 1890, and others were exjiected to become incorporated. The city was made a county borough under the Act of 1888. The area of the parliamentary borough (comprising eleven townships and parts of two others) is '20 sq. m., and that of Salford 8 sq. m. Both boroughs were enfranchised by the Reform Bill of 1832, Manchester returning two members and Salford one member to parliament. The Reform Bill of 1867 gave ^lanchester three and Salford two members. Since 1885 Manchester returns six and Salford three members to parlia- ment.

At present Manchester and Salford, and a large portion of tlie suburban population, are supplied \\\t\\ water collected on the slopes of Blackstone Edge, distant about 20 miles. The water-works possess a total capacity of 3,828,000,000 gallons, and the average daily supply is about 25,0(^0,000 gallons. In view of the rapid increase of the population the city council purchased Thirl mere (q.v.), in Cumberland, giving a further supply of 50,000,000 gallons daily. The water is conveyed by aqueduct and tunnels ( completed in 1894 ; see Aqueduct ) to Bolton, and most of the remaining 60

12

MANCHESTER

miles in large iron pipes laid along the main roads. The first contract of 6 miles' tunnel- ling and U mile of open cutting was let in 1885. The' water-works, along with the gas- works, are the property of the corporation, and Manchester claims to have been the first local authority to obtain powers to sup^ily public light. The profits average £105,480, out of which £25,000 is paid over for city imjtrovements. The market rents amount to £44,000 per annum, and until so late as 1845, being governed by the antiquated machinery of manor courts, borough reeve, con- stables, and unpaid magistrates, tax and toll were l)aid on all articles brought into the markets. During that year (1845) these manorial privileges were bought for £200,000. In 1845-46 a public suliscription founded three parks of about 30 acres each, and shortly after a fourth of 60 acres was added. There are now in Manchester and Salford eleven parks, giving seven for the former and four for the latter, with eight recreation grounds, cover- ing altogether 300 acres. Manchester was also the first borouiih to take advantage in 1852 of the

Free Libraries Act. Perhaps none of the great towns in Britain is better furnished with good libraries and reading-rooms than Manchester, all provided within a few years. There are six branch libraries with reading-rooms, and also additional rooms for boys. The Free Reference Library in King Street has 198,000 volumes. Salford has four branch libraries, with reading-rooms and a museum ; while Manchester in 1890 received a park, library, and museum from the Whitworth legatees, to be incorporated with the Technical School and School of Art. There are besides eighteen private libraries, some connected with other institutions. The Chetiiam Liljrary, founded by Humphrey Chetham (q.v. ) in 1653, contains 30,000 volumes, with many rare Ijooks and manuscripts, and was the first free library in England. Tiie .lolin Kylund's Library comprises the famous Altliorp collection, pre- sented to the town in 1892 l)y the M'idow of a Man- chester millionaire. Mention may be made also of the Athena'um, Royal Exchange, Portico, and Law and Foreign Ivi!)raries, &c. The two boroughs have about 162 churches belonging to the Establishment. The Cathedral, formerly known as the Collegiate Church, but now called the ' Old Church ' (built in 1422), is a fine Gothic structure, and between 1845 and 1868 underwent complete restoration in its original style. It comprises a perfect stalled choir of exquisite beauty, a retrochoir, lady chapel, lateral chapels, chapter-lumse, and a tower 139 feet high, with ten bells. There are 23 lioman Catholic and 398 dissenting chapels, .^omo of which are very line specimens of modern Gothic architec- ture. There are 5 Jewish synagogues, 5 German

churches, a Greek church, and an Armenian (q.v.) church.

The principal buildings for secular purposes are, first, the town-hall (1868-77), by Waterhouse, com- pleted in 1883. The original estimate for the build- ing was £750,000 ; it has, however, cost £1,053,000, and occupies an area of 8648 square yards. It is a Gothic structure and triangular in form, built of brick, faced with freestone, and at some parts with granite ; and is, it is claimed, the finest building in the world devoted to purely municipal purposes. The great hall is decorated with remarkable pictures illustrating the history of Manchester, by Madox Brown (q.v.). The clock-tower, 286 feet high, contains a fine peal of twenty-one bells. In the Royal Infirmary, first used in 1755, as many as 32,000 patients are treated annually, and there is an average of 25 accident cases admitted daily. The Royal Institution is a noble Doric edifice by Barry, built at a cost of £30,000, and contains a gallery of paintings, a school of design, and a lectirrc theatre. It was erected in 1825-30, its ol)iect being to diffuse a taste for the fine arts by exhibit- ing works of art of the highest class, and to encourage literary and scientific pursuits by means of popular courses of lectures. The walls of the entrance-hall are decorated with casts of the Elgin Marbles, presented by George IV. A fine statue of Dalton by Chantrey is placed in the hall. The Royal Exchange (1864-74), an imposing building in the Italian style, has a meet- ing-hall said to be the largest in the United Kingdom — area, 5170 square yards. It is 120 feet wide without intermediate supports. Tuesdays and Fridays are the chief days for business, aiul on these days its immense area is densely covered. The Free-trade Hall (1856) holds 5000 people, and is a memorial of the agitation which resulted in the repeal of the corn laws. The ' Peterloo Massacre' took place on its site. The Assize Courts (1864), by Waterhouse, are a splendid specimen of Gothic architecture, and cost £100,000. The great hall is a magnificent apartment, being 100 feet long, 48^ broad, and 75 feet high. All the arrangements of the court are considered as nearly perfect as possible.

The Literary and Philosophical Society (1789), in George Street, has a valuable scientific lil>rary and a chemical laboratory, and publishes memoirs. On its roll are many distinguished names, including Drs Henry and Percival, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas de Quincey, John Dalton, Eaton Hodgkin- son. Sir W. Fairbairn, Sir James Whitworth, James Nasmyth, and Dr Joule. There are about seventy other societies and institutions of various kinds in Manchester, many of them of very high stan<]ing.

The statues and monuments in Manchester are numerous, and vary considerably in order of merit. On the rnfirmary Esplanade are four statues — the Duke of Wellington, Sir R. Peel, Watt, and Dalton. The Albert Memorial stands in Albeit Square, where are also statues of Bishop Eraser, of Dr Joule ( 1891 ), and of John Bright (also in 1891 ). In front of the town-hall is one of Oliver Heywood ( 1894) ; there is one of Cobden in St Anne's Square, of Humphrey Chetham in the Cathedral, and of Cromwell near the entrance of Victoria Street.

The facilities for education in Manchester have been gre.atly extended and imju-oved within recent years. The Grammar-school is the most ancient, and

MANCHESTER

13

was founded by Hugh Oldham, Bisliop of Exeter, in 1515. Its original endowment was £29 per annum, but the possession of certain mills on the Irk — a tributary of the Irwell — soon gave the school a substantial revenue. In 1825 the re[)ort of the Charity Commissioners showed that the total income of tlie Graninuir-school Trust had reached a sum exceeding £4000 per annum. In 1868 the original plan of the founder was altered, and the new scheme, as sanctioned by the Court of Chancery, is the admission of 100 ])oys at twelve guineas a year each, the remainder being on the foundation, and the school is enlarged to accommodate 350 boys. In Jjrasenose College, Oxford, there are four scholarships belonging to this school, and eighteen others of which it has every tiiird turn. In St John's College, Cam- bridge, it has, in turn M'itli two other schools, a right to twenty-two scholarships. There is also a hospital school, founded in 1651 by Humphrey Chetham, ' for maintaining, educating, bringing uj), and apprenticing forty healthy and poor boys.' By 1845 the revenue had increased sutli- ciently to justify the f cotters in increasing the number of boys to 100. In 1851 was opened Owens College (q. v.). It is due to the liljerality of John Owens, who died in 1846, leaving by will £100,000 to be expended in founding an educational institu- tion of the highest class. -In 1870 a further sum of £90,000 was expended on new buildings, »S:c. In 1880 a royal charter was granted for the founding of Victoria University, of which Owens is one of the colleges, and by an addition,al charter the uni- versity was entitled to confer degrees in surgery and medicine. As an educational institution it has already earned a very high character, and has grown steadily in usefulness and resources. The university contains an excellent library and museum of natural history. The Technical School, with which in 1883 was incorporated the Mechanics' Institute, and in 1890 the Manchester Whitworth Institute, has proved very completely how a school can be organ- ised to give thorough technical training in the principles and processes of great and complicated industries. The course of studies is generally con- lined to subjects of commercial and mechanical interest — theoretical and practical engineering, de- signing, spinning and weaving, printing, dyeing, and bleaching, metallurgy and chemistry. It has also several good lecture-rooms. Every facility is artbrded tlie scholars for acquiring thorough know- ledge, theoretical and practical, of the various handicrafts, and the expert use of tools. The guarantors of the Manchester Exhi])ition (1887) have contril)uted their surplus of £42,000, and the city council has adopted the Technical Instruction Act, and has from 1890 allotted the scliool tiie sum of £2000 per annum. In 1889-90 there were .50 board schools and 130 elementary schools, with an attendance of 72,167 scholars. There are evening classes in connection with the board and technical schools at a moderate rate. As regards the educa- tion of the poorer children, the persevering en- deavours of the wealthy and benevolent in this direction have been very noteworthy.

The great revolution in the industrial life of England began here about the middle of the 18th century — the substitution of the factory system, where large numbers of men work together, for the older metiiod of each working in their homes. New possibilities were also opened up by a series of remarkable inventions which increased production of manufactured goods at a far cheaper and incon- ceivably more rapid rate, combined with the new application of mechanical power to the service of man in Watt's steam-engine. Manchester has been the pioneer in opening up new means of internal communication, and to meet the rapiil increase of

trade and commerce many efforts were made in early times to substitute some better means for the ])ack- horse mode of carriage and conveyance. In 1720 the Irwell M'as made navigable. In 1756 the Bridge- water Canal was constructed, which put Man- chester in communication with the coalfields of Lancashire and the salt-mines of Cheshire, and made an outlet to the sea. Later it became a high- way for passengers as well as goods. In 1830 Man- chester had the first perfect railway in full o])eration. It has l)een jjroved that conveyance by water is only one-tenth of the cost of the same distance by land, and, in order to avoid transhipment of goods, and to render Manchester an inland seaport, the gigantic engineering work of making a ship-canal at a cost of about £15,000,000 was carried out in 1887-93 (see Canal, Vol. II. p. 700). A perfect network of raihvays and canals radiates from Man- chester as a centre in all directions. In conse- quence of all these gradual changes Manchester is losing its character as merely a manufacturing town. A change is gradually developing in the locale of the various large industries, and the city may be regarded now as the general market for the whole trade. The ])rincipal cotton-mills and other industries are being removed to the suburbs north and east of the city, and in and around Manchester and Salford two-thirds of the entire cotton-manu- factures of the United Kingdom are located. Thei-e are about 700 ditt'erent industries in the district. Manchester was the first place to secure the privi- lege of inland bonding for articles charged with customs duties, and now pi'oduces a large and increasing revenue from that source.

The sanitary condition of Manchester is not a satisfactory one, and in conseijuence the death-rate, averaging 35 per 1000, is abnormally liigh ; but it must be remembered that the coiporation had long arrears of neglect and inditl'erence to make up, while a rapid increase of population was going on. Down to 1838 Manchester and Salford were governed by a borough-reeve and constables, and from their abolition only could the real work of improvement begin. As instances of the im- mense works accom])lislied by the corporations may be mentioned the gas and water supplies, municipal buildings, widening and diaining of the streets, removal of unhealthy courts and dwellings. The sewage main drains made since 1838 are 95 miles in length, cross drains and eyes 148 miles, whilst the area of streets paved equals a million squaie yards. The smoke nuisance is perhaps more difhcult to remove now than when the factories were within the city. The disease and death dealing river, the Irwell, flowing through a dense population, has yet to be dealt with. Besides the pollution from i)ublic works of all kinds it is the receptacle of the sewage from more than one million of a population distributed over the water- shed of the Irwell, comprising an area of 300 sq. m. Great efforts are constantly being made to remedy this unfortunate state of matters.

Manchester is undoubtedly an ancient city. It is mentioned as a Roman station ( Manciiniiim ; in A.S. Mcuiicjceasfer), and spoken of at the time of the Nornian Conquest in connection with Salford and Kochdale, but the uncertainty of all trustworthy information, especially as regards its origin, renders any account of its early iiistory a matter of doubtful value. We cannot determine when Manchester became a manufacturing district, but it is probalde that the introduction of Uleinisli artificers in the reign of Edward III. is the real .starting-])oint. In the 13tli century there was a fulling-mill, and dyeing yarns or cloth was practised. The 14th and 15th centuries are mentioned as periods of great progress. Camden, who visited Manchester in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, describes it as

u

MANCHESTER

MANCHURIA

'surpassing neii;hbouring towns in elegance and populousness. Here,' he says, ' is a woollen manu- facture, eliurcli, market, and college. In the last age it was more famous for the manufacture of stuti's called Manchester cottons and the privilege of sanctuary, which the parliament under Henry VIII. removed to Chester.' In 1724 Dr Stukely describes it as 'the largest, most rich, jjopulous, and busy village in England. Here are about 2400 families, and tlieir trade, Avhich is incredibly large, consists of fustians, tickings, girth-webbs, and tapes, which are dispensed all over the knigdom and to foreign parts. They have looms which work 24 laces at a time, stolen from the Dutch, and on the same river for the space of 3 miles there are 60 water-mills.' Another autiiority of near the same date says ' tlie inhabitants are not only thrifty and inventive but very industrious and saving — always contriving and inventing something new.'

In the political world ilancliester has taken a leading place. The Anti-corn-law League, which after a seven years' struggle cause<l the repeal of the corn laws, had its origin here ; and the Man- chester School is a term applied to a party of English Radicals, which had its origin in the Anti- corn-law League. It identilied itself with the development of free-trade principles, utilitarian- ism, the resistance to government interference (as with factory labour), supporting a policy of laissez faire, and in foreign affairs was a peace party, insisting strongly on non-interference. See articles on Corn Laws, Free Trade, Bright, Cobden, Gibson (Milner).

See "Whittaker's HUtorii of Manchester (1771) ; Pren- tice's ffistori/ and sketches of Mancliester (1850-53); Keilly's History of Manchester ( 18G1 ) ; Bame's Histonj ■of Lancashire (1870); Proctor's Memorials of Man- chester (1830); Axon's Annals of Manchester (1886); Saintsbury's Manchester (1887); and M'CullocIi's Dic- tionar;! of Commerce (1887).

illaiicliestei*, the largest city of New Hamp- shire, stands mostly on tiie east bank of the Merri- mac River, 16 miles S. of Concord, 59 miles NNW. ■of Boston by rail. Its principal streets are wide and shaded witir elms, and it has several public parks. The river here falls 54 feet, and ailbrds water-power to numerous factories. The great industry of the place is its manufacture of cottons and woollens; but locomotives, fire-engines, sewing- machines, wagons, edged tools, boots and shoes, paper, &c. are also manufactured. Manchester is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, and has a Catiiolic orphanage and a convent, besides a state reform-school. Pop. (1870) 23,536 ; ( 1890) 44,126.

Manchester, Edwakd Montagu, second Earl of, English general and statesman, was tlie .son of the first earl, and was born in 1602. After leaving Cambridge— his college was Sidney Sussex —he accompanied Prince Charles to Spain, and afterwards sat in the House of Lords as Baron Kimbolton. But siding witii the popular party, and being an acknowledged leader of the Puri- tans in the Upper House, he was charged by tiie king ( 3d January 1642 ) with entertaining traitorous designs, along with the five independent members of the House of Commons. He succeeded his fatiier as earl in the same year. On tlie outbreak of hos- tilities lie of cour.se fougiit for the i)arliament. He served under Essex at Edgehili, then held tlie asso- ciated (eastern) counties against Newcastle, took Lincoln ( 1644), and routed Prince Rupert at Marston Moor — that is to say, he nominally commanded ; the real fighting was done by Cromwell and his Ironsides. He then marciied to ojjpose the royalists in tlie south-west, and defeate<l them at Newbury (the s('(;()nd battle). But after this battle he again showed slackness in following up the victory, the same fault that had been noticed after Marston

Moor. In consequence Cromwell accused him of military incompetency in the House of Commons, anil the two had a downright quarrel. The Self- denying Ordinance deprived ^Manchester of his command, and this did not allay his bitterness against Cromwell. He opposed the trial of the king, and protested against the Commonwealth. Afterwards, having been active in promoting the Restoration, he was made Lord Chamberlain, a step designed to conciliate the Presbvterians. He died 5th May 1671.

His grandson, Chakles Montagu, fourth Eakl, supported William of Orange in Ireland, was sent as ambassador extraordinary to Venice ( 1696 ), Paris (1699), and Vienna (1707), and was made Duke of Manchester in 1719 for having favoured the Han- overian succession. He died 20th January 1 722.

illaiicllilieel [Hipjwmanc mancinella), a tropi- cal American tree of the natural order Euphor- biacetT?, celebrated for the poisonous properties of its acrid milky juice. A drop of this burns like fire if it falls upon the skin, and the sore which it produces is very difficult to heal. The Indians use it for poisoning their arrows. The fruit is not unlike a small apple ; dried and pulverised it is diuretic ; and still more so its seeds. The wood is well suited for cabinet- making.

Ulanchui'ia, long the north-easternmost por- tion of the Chinese Empire, is since the events of 1898 so completely controlled by Russia as to be practically the south-eastern corner of Asiatic Russia. ' The Country of the ^lanchus ' (see Asia, Chin.a) lies between the Yellow Sea and the Amur, and, lying just beyond the limits of China proper, borders on Corea and the Russian JIaritime Province. The first step in the Russian occupation was the concession by China allowing the deviation of the Siberian railway through Northern INIanchuria ; then the events connected with the Russification of Port Arthur (q.v. ) and Ta-lien-wan. Finally it was arranged that the Sil)erian railway should be connected with Kirin and Mukden, Avith Peking on the one hand and Port Ai'thur on the other, and that Cossack garrisons and settlements of Russians along the line should be sanctioned. The area of Manchuria is said to be 280,000 sq. m. ; total pop. 21,000,000. The Chinese recognised three provinces — Kirin in the centre, Feng-tien or Liao-tung in the south, and Hei-lung-chiang in the north. The eastern and most of the central parts are covered with the iiregularly groui)ed ranges of the Long White Mountains, Avhich in the White Mountain itself reach 8000 feet, whilst the northern province is crossed by the Chingan Mountains. The central parts of the country are watered by the Sungari, which rises in the crater-lake of the Long White INIountains, and after a course of 850 miles joins the Anuir in the north of Kirin province. The hills are rich in timber, pines jiredominating ; in minerals, chielly gold, silver, coal, and iron, of all which little has been ex- tracted ; and in fur-bearing and other animals, as the sable, foxes, lynx, squirrel, tiger, bear, wolf, deer, tS;c. The Manchurian lark, a clever mimic, is exported in great numbers to China. The rivers swarm with salmon, and trout are plentiful. The climate is temjierate in siammer, especially whilst the rains last (May to September), but very severe in winter, the season of trafiic, when the streams and extensive marshy tracts are frost-bound ; the thermometer frequently falls as low as - 25° F. in the northern province in the depth of winter. The soil is extremely fertile, and jjroduces in abundance millet ( with vegetables the chief food of the people ), maize, hemp, l)oiq)y, beans, rice, \egetables, and ginseng. Wild silk is produced. The industry is

MANCINI

MANDAMUS

16

confined to the making of furniture, coffins (sent to China), and carts, the tanning of leather, the preparation of furs, and the distilling of spirits. A large amount of trade is carried on at the towns in the interior, and especially at the treaty port of New-chwang- (q.v. ). Beans, bean cakes and oil, silk, ginseng, skins and furs, &.c. are exported to the annual value of IJ million sterling, and cottons, woollens, metals, sugar, silk, paper, medi- cines, opium, tS:c. imported to l^ million sterling. The native opium is rai>idlv supplanting the Indian, the import of which fell horn 33U,000 lbs. in lSSO-85 to some 10,000 lbs. in 1890-95. Floods have often caused severe famines. The j)0])ulation does not embrace more than one million jNianchus, and most of these dress and speak like Chinese. Yet they are the aristocracy of the country, furnishing its magistrates and soldiers, its police, and its hunters, though many cultivate their own land. Ever since the Manchus conquered China (1644) and founded the i)rcsent imperial dynasty ^laric'iuria has been the favourite recruituig-ground for tlie Chinese army ; there are stated to be 80,000 drilled men in the country. The rest of the population consists almost entirely of Chinese immigrants, as enter- prising, industrious, and prosperous as any people in the empire. The principal towns are ^loukden (q.v. ), the capital: Kirin(q. v. ); Tsitsihar, a con- vict settlement for the empire ; Ying-tzu, commonly called New-chwang (q.v.), the chief port; and some others with jjopnlations of about 20,000. All Man- churian towns are indescribably lilthy, worse than English towns in the loth century, and most of them are walled. The religions current are those found in China (q.v.), though the original creed of the Manchus was Shamanism. Early in the 11th century B.C. there existed a native kingdom in the southern of the three provinces, and this was suc- ceeded liy other states, until in the beginning of the 17th century Nurhachu, a Manchu chief, founded a powerful sovereignty ; in 1644 las grandson ascended the throne of China, and thus founded the reigning Chin dynasty. The con- querors im[)osed upon the conquered the custom of wearing the pigtail, shaving the forehead, and dressing in narrow-sleeved instead of wide-sleeved coats. Brigandage and gambling are exceedingly rife in the country. The Mancliu language is a branch of the ^longol stem, as the people them- selves are of the same division of the Ural-Altiiic family. The French Roman Catholics have had missionaries in Manchuria since IS38, and the Scottish and Irish Presbyterian churches since about 1861. See James, The Long White Mountain ( 1888), where other books are quoted.

jflanciiii. See Mazarix.

MaildicailS, an oriental religious sect of great anti([uity, formed out of heterogeneous C'.riistian, Jewish, and heathen elements, and still found about tlie cities of Wasit and Basra, and in Khiiz- istan {Susiana) on the eastern shore of the Tigris, working as je\\'ellers, blacksmiths, carpenters, &c. The name is due to the word Mancld, ' gnosis ' (whence Mandaye, 'gnostics'), but the public name they take is that of Sabians ( Siibbd, ' bap- tists'), thus professing to identify themselves with the Salxeans tolerated in the Koran. They were formerly called Christians of St John the Baptist from their hal)it of baptism or ablution. In their religious system the supreme is I'ird rahbd ( ' the great glory'), with which is connected the Mdnd rabbd, which, after calling forth the first life, retired into an obscurity that can be penetrated only by the most holy after death, and that but once. The first life ( Chayc Kadindi/c) is the active deity as revealed, and which alone can be wor- shipped. From it, besides the 'second life,'

emanated the Mandd dliayye ( ' spirit of life ' ), the mediator and saviour of the MancUeans, from whom they derive their name. He reveals himself to man in his three sons, Ilibil, Sitil, and Aniis ; of these Hibil is the most important. From the second life emanated the Uthre ( ' angels ' ), the greatest of whom is Abatur, wliose son Gabriel liuilt the earth and formed man, save tiiat his spirit was infused into him by Mdnd rabbd. Theie is an elaborate cosmogony extending to the kingdoms of darkness, of hell, the mountains of the blessed, and the planets. The succession of false projdiets from Nfl were Abrahim, Misha ( Moses), Shlimun ( Solomon ), and Yishu M'shiha (Jesus), who had been baptised through deceit by the only true i>roi)iiet, Yahya. The last of the false prophets is M'hanuxd.

The Manda-ans had three degrees in the priest- hood, Avith a supreme official (Kish amma) as the source of both civil and ecclesiastical authority. The priests olficiate in white robes, barefooted, and M'omen may be admitted to their order. Tlieir principal i-ite is the masbatha or baptism. Their sacred language is an Aramaic dialect close to the Babylonian Talmud. They have five important sacred books: Stdi-d rabbd ('the great book'), called also ginza, 'treasure;' Sidrd d'Yahi/d ('book of John'); the Qolasta, a collection of hymns ; Diicdn, a ritual ; and Asfar Maliodsc, a manual of astrologj*.

Brandt traces this system of religion back to the period of amalgamation of the Assyro-Babylonian religion with Greek speculation.

See Chwolsohn, Die Sahier v. der Sahismus (1856); SiouflB, Les Saheens (1880); Babelon, Les Mendd'des (1882) ; Brandt, Die Manddische Rclvjion (1889).

Maildal. tiie southernmost ])ort of Norwaj^, 17 miles east of the Naze. Pop. 4000.

Ulaildalay, the capital of Upper Burma, stands 2 miles from the left bank of the Irawadi, a little N. of Amarapura (q.v.), the former capital, and 410 miles by rail (1888) N. of Rangoon. Founded in 1860, it was the capital of independent Burma until its capture by the British in the end of 1885, and since the treaty by which (1886) the king lost his throne it has been the capital of Upper Burma. The citj^ forms a square, each side a mile long, and is surrounded by a wide moat, a crenelated brick wall 26 feet high, and an inner earthen parapet. In the centre of the city stand the royal palaces, constructed principally of teak-wood, and enclosed by three stone Malls and a teak-wood stockade. There is little of real interest or beautj^ in them beyond some rich wood-carving. The most famous building in Mandalay is, however, the Aracan Pagoda ; it contains a brazen image of Buddha, 12 feet high, an object of veneration to thousands of pilgrims. Outside these enclosures was, until the British conquest, a crowded, dirty native town, now cleared away to make room for a British cantonment. The present native quarters lie out- side the fortified city. Beyond them, again, on the slopes of the hills that border the valley of the Irawadi, are numerous fine monasteries. Pop. ( 1891 ) 187,910. Silk- weaving is the most inqjorrant of tlie industries ; the others are gold and silver Mork, ivory and wood carving, bell and gong cast- ing, and knife and sword making. In 1886 (as again in March 1892) mucli damage was done by fire, and by an inuutiation of the river. In 1886 a meteorological observatory was built.

illailda'lllllS is a writ, not of right but of pre- rogative, which issues from the Court of Queen's Bench, commanding some public body, or ijiferior court, or jdstices of the peace, to do something which it is their legal duty to do. In the United States the power to issue writs of mandannis is vested iu

16

MANDARIN

MANDIBLE

the Supreme Court, and is also allowed to the cir- cuit courts, subject to considerable restrictions.

lllaildarill, a general term applied to Chinese oHicers of every grade by foreigners, derived from the Portuguese maiu/ar, 'to command.' For the Chinese governmental authorities, their rank and distinctive buttons, see China, \o\. III. p. 191.

Mandeville, Behxakd de, English satirical Avriter. though horn of Dutch parents at Dordrecht in Holland in 1670. He graduated in medicine at Leyden, after six years of study, in 1691, and im- metliately afterwards settled in London to practise his profession ; he died in that city in 1733. He is known as the author of a short work in doggerel verse entitled The Fable of the Bees, Avhich, as finally published in 1723, included the fable itself, called The Gnunhling Hive, first printed in 1705, Eeinnrks on the Fable, and Inquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue, both added to the 1714 edition, and An Essay on Charity Schools and Search into the Origin of Society, added in 1723. This book was a pothouse fulminant, levelled against the ethical theories of Shaftesbury, who set up as the standard of virtue the ultra-refined tastes of an idealistic aesthete. iNIandeville, writing in a vein of extremely coarse and brutal paradox, cynical in its frankness, though frequently of striking acute- ness, affirms that ' private vices are public benefits,' anil that every species of virtue is at bottom some form of gross selfishness, more or less modified. Thus he over-emphasises the baser elements in human nature, as Shaftesbury does the 'dignified.' The book was condemned by the grand jurj^ of Middlesex as being immoral and pernicious in its teaching. Besides that, it was attacked by Law (q.v. ) the nonjuror, by Berkeley, by Brown, War- burton, Hutcheson, and others. JNIandeville in his defence states that he wrote in irony for the diver- sion of people of discernment and knowledge, and his words were not to be taken in literal earnest, as if meant for general readers. Nevertheless, his other works, such as The Virgin Unmasl^ed, Free Thoughts on Religion, &c. , detract greatly from the sincerity of this plea. It is Avorth while observ- ing that his realistic habits of thought bring him in some respects curiously into touch with the exponents of modern scientific methods of inquiry.

See Leslie Stephen, Essaps on Freethinking (1873), or the briefer summary in vol. ii. of the same writer's EiuiUsh Thowjht in the ISth Century (1876).

Ulaildeville, J eh ax de, the name assumed by the compiler of a famous book of travels, written in French, and published between 1357 and 1371. Versions in Italian, Spanish, Dutch, AValloon, German, Bohemian, Danish, and Irish are found, and the number of MSS. amounts to at least 300. Many have maintained the priority of the Latin text, which exists in as many as five independent versions, but it seems much more probable that the French was the earlier. The earliest edition of the French text was printed at Lyons in 1480. Indeed, it is most probable that the book was written under a feigned name by the physician Jehan de Bourgoigne, otherwise Jehan a laBarbe, who is stated in an early Latin edition to have met Mandeville first at Cairo, and again at Liege, and to have persuaded and helped him to write his travels. There can be little doubt that this statement of Bourgoigne's was merely an ingeni- ous blind, and that he alone was the author of tiie book. But a statement has been discovered that Bourgoigne revealed on his deatli-bed his real name of Mandeville to Jean d'Outremeuse, ex- plaining that he had had to flee from his native England for a homicide. We are told further that tills ])iiysifian, who died in 1372, had jiractised his profession at Liege since 1343. And it is

apparently quite certain that in the 16tl> and 17th centuries a tomb was shown at Lic!'^, with a Latin inscrijjtion stating that ^landeville died there in November 1372. An English version was made from a defective French manuscript at least as early as the beginning of *'•" i\h century, and two extant independent 5V>f

this followed within a quartei' of a cci,....^. The original defective form was printed by Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde (1499); the editions of 1725 and the well-known reprints by Halliwell ( 1839 and 1866) represent one of these later revisions; that lirst printed for the Roxburghe Club in 1889 is an admirable edition of the other. But the glaring errors of translation render it impossible that either of these forms of the English version can be from the hand which wrote the original work, in spite of the statement in the preface, which has been too easily believed, that it was made by ^Mandeville himself. None the less it remains an admirable monument of English, but the name of Sir John Mandeville should now disappear from histories of literature as the 'father of English prose.'

In the preface the French compiler describes himself as a knight born at St Albans, who left his native country in 1322, travelled by way of Turkej', Armenia, Tartary, Persia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt, Libya, Ethiopia, Amazonia, and India, often visited Jerusalem, and who wrote in liomance as better understood than Latin. In the course of the book we are told further that he had served the sultan of Egypt against the Bedouins, and the emperor of China against the king of Manzi ; that he had seen the glory of Prester John and drunk of the Fountain of Youth at Palombe (Quilon on the Malabar coast), and returned home unwillingly owing to arthritic gout in 1357.

By far the greater part of the book has now been proved to be borrowed, with interpolations, usually extravagant, from the narrative of Friar Odoric (written about 1330); from Hayton, an Armenian who became a Premonstratensian monk, and dictated at Poitiers in 1307 a book about the East in the French tongue ; from the work of the Franciscan Carpini; from the well-known Epistle of Prester John, widely known in the 13th century ; from Albert of Aix, Brunetto Latini, Peter Coniestor, Jacques de Vitry, "N'incent de Beau- vais [Speculum Historiale and Speculum Natu- rale); from the 12tli-century Latin itineraries of Palestine, and from the work of the German knight William of Boldensele, written in 1336. A small portion of the book may still represent actual travels and personal knowledge, especially in the part relating to the Holy Land; but this does not re-establish the honesty of the writer, who claims himself to have travelled in the remotest regiorfe described, and to have seen with his own eyes the wonders enumerated, while he never mentions Odoric, from whom he conveyed by far the greater part of his book. Among these wonders we find ' stories of fabulous monsters, such as anthropo])hagi, and men whose heads grew beneath their shoulders, • the phamix, the vegetable lamb, the weeping croco- dile, the garden of transmigrated souls at Cansay ( Hang-choo-foo), and the Valley Perilous. Of the Terrestrial Paradise, however, the writer is candid enough to say that he had not been there.

See the article by Colonel Yule and E. B. Nicholson in vol. XV. (1883) of the Enciidopaitia liritannica, and the latter's letter in the Acadcmij for April VI, 1884 ; Dr Albert Bovenschen, Quellen fiir die Beiscbcaclircibung des Johann ton il/rt7)Y7fr(7/e ( Berlin, 1888) ; and the In- troduction by G. F. Warner to his edition for the Rox- burghe Club (1889), in whicli tlie views of Dr Vogels and Dr Carl Schiinborn are also discussed.

Ulandiblc. a name applied to various jaw- organs— e.g. the third pair of appendages in Crus-

MANDINGOES

MANFRED

taceans, +M first pair of trae appendages in Insects, :lie lower j'^^v in Vertebrates.

Ulaildillgoes are a Bantu people of Africa, mainly in Senegambia (q.v.). See Africa, Vol. [.p. 85.

■< r .arh, or Mandu', a ruined city of India, forni J ,!,.i.^it3il cf the Mohammedan kingdom of Malwa, stands 15 miles N. of the Nerbudda and 38 SW. of Indore. The ruins stretch for 8 niles along the crest of the Vindhya Mountains, md have a circumference of 37 miles. A deep, aarrow valley separates them from the adjoining ;ableland. The least injured of the ruined build- ings is the great mosque, which is reached by a handsome flight of stairs; it is .said to be 'the finest and largest specimen of Afghan arcliitecture ixtant in India.' There are also a massive royal palace and the ■white marble mausoleum of the king who raised the city to the acme of its splen- dour (early 15th century). According to Malcolm, -Mandogarh was founded 313 A.D.

UlailClolilie. a musical instrument of the lute species. The body of the mandoline is formed of a number of narrow pieces of ditt'erent kinds of wood, bent into the shape, and glued together. On tiie open portion of the body is fixed the sounding-board, with a finger-board and neck like a guitar. The Neapolitan mandoline, which is tlie most perfect, has four double strings, tuned (beginning with the lowest) G, D, A, E. The Milanese mandoline has five double strings, tuned G, C, A, D, E. The sound is produced by a plectrum in the right hand, while the left hand produces the notes on the finger-board. The man- doline is chiefly used for accompaniment.

mandrake (Mandragom officinalis), a Solan- aceous plant closely allied to Belladonna (q.v.). There are two varieties, the vernal and the autum- nal ; both are natives of the Mediterranean region and the East, and especially aljound in Greece. The whole plant has a verj' fetid narcotic smell ;

and all parts have poisonous proper- ties like those of belladonna, but more narcotic, for which reason a dose of the root Avas f(jrmerly some- times given to patients aVtout to endure surgical operations. The ancients were Avell ij^- acquainted with

-^ ^ the narcotic and

stupefying proper- ties of mandrake, and it was a com- mon saj'ing of a sleepy or indolent man that he had eaten mandrake. The large taproot ^rows somewhat irregularly, and jranclrake(J/a/idra^o?'a officinalis), often seeins divided

into two, through the development of a branch which att<ains more or less equal size. Hence arises a rude resem- blance to a human figure ; and this is easily exaggerated by a little judicious jiruning or carv- ing, and by trimming the covering of fine hair- like roots. Hence Pythagoras speaks of the man- drake as anthropomorphic. To such mannikin- Hgures many magical virtues were ascril)e<l : l)y the ancient Germans thev were supposed to bring luck 3U

w

to their possessors, Avho accordingly dressed and tended tliem like dolls, yet kept them reverentially enshrined in caskets, anil thus obtained their services for the healing of ol)stinate diseases of man and beast, for the divination of the future, or the ensur- ing of supplies of money. From the most ancient times ai)hrodisiac virtues have been ascribed to mandrake, which was therefore supposed to cure barrenness (see Gen. xxx. 14-16); such repute is hardly borne out by the actual properties of the root (which would, however, relax the womli), but prol)ably more commonly depended on its magical associations as a phallic figure. The extremely narcotic and poisonous properties of the plant could not but invest these figures with a more grim significance, of which the medieval imagina- tion made the most. So large, deep, and well fixed a root needs some labour to dig out, and, if torn up by main force, breaks with more or less noise, hence the ancient legend that the mandrake shrieks when torn out of the ground. The subse- quent possibilities of accident (not to speak of misuse) can easily be imagined, not only from the sweet and attractive berries, but the leaves, root, or even juice. On the base of caution there arose a whole fantastic ritual : the plant could only be safely dug up at midnight, and when loosened by careful digging should be dragged out of the ground by a black dog, which served as a vicarious sub- stitute for the herbalist, in dread of the mandrake's vengeance.

mandrill. See Baboon.

manduria, a town of Southern Italy, 22 miles E. l)y S. of Taranto, near the ancient town of j\Ia7iduria, of which some important relics are still extant. Pop. 8865. In 1790 it exchanged its name of Casalnuovo for Manduria.

mandvif the chief seaport of the principality of Cutch, in India, on the north shore of the Gulf of Cutch, 36 miles SW. of Bhuj, the capital. It has a good roadstead and a breakwater, l)ut the harbour is choked with sand. The pilots are in request all through the .state. Pop. (1881) 35,980 ; (1891) 38,155.

manes. See Lares.

mauet, Edouard (1832-82), a French painter, the founder of Impressionism ( q. v. ). See his Life by Bazire (Paris, 1884).

manetllO, a celebrated Egyptian historian, native of Sebennytus, a juiest who flourished in the 3d century B.C. 'See Egyi-t, Vol. IV. p. 238.

manfred, regent and king of Sicily, wa-s a natural son (afterwards legitimised) of the Emperor Frederick II. by Bianca, the daughter of Count Lancia, and was born in 1231. On his fathers death in 1250 he received the principality of Tarentum, and in the absence of his half brother, Conrad IV., acted as regent in Italy. He bravely defended his sovereigns interests against the aggression of Pope Innocent IX. ; and after Con- rad's death he was acknowledged as regent of A])ulia, in name of his nephew Conradin (q.v.). The pope, however, renewed his pretensions to Apulia, and compelled Manfred to nee for shelter to the Saracens, by whose aid he defeated the papal troops, and became, in 1257, master of the whole kingdom of Najdes and Sicily. On the rumour of Conradins death he was crowned king at Paleiiiio, 11th August 1258, and immediately afterwards was excommunicated by Pope Alexander IV. along with his adherents ; but Manfred invaded the papal dominions, and made him.self master of the whole of Tuscany. His power now seemed secure, and his government was at once mild and vigorous. But this tranf|uillity was not of long duration. Pope Urban IV. renewed the excommunication

18

MANFREDONIA

MANGE

against liiin and liis friends, and bestowed his dominions as a papal fief on Charles of Anjou, the brother of Louis IX. of France. Manfred, though at first successful in the war which ensued, was at last treacherously defeated, and slain in a bloody battle at l>oneveuto, 26th February 1266. His body was interred as that of an e.xconimunicated person. His widow and chiUlren were barbarously treated by the French ; the widow and three sons died in prison; the daughter was conlined for twenty-two years. His history has been nu\de the subject ' of drama and opera. See Cesare, Ston'a d i Manfrcdi (ISSl ) ; Schirrmacher, Gesc/tic/itc (fcr htztcn Hvlioistaufcn (1871).

llailfredoilia. a walled seaport of Italy, on the liulf of Manfredonia, a bay of the Adriatic, 23 miles by rail NE. of Foggia. Founded by ^Manfred in 1261 from the ruins of ancient Sipontum, it iias an old castle and a cathedral. Pop. 8324.

llnil^alore, a seaport and military station, and chief town in the district of South Kanara, in the presidency of ^Madras, India. A clean, pictur- esque town, embosomed in cocoa-nut palm groves, it ships large quantities of coftee (from Coorg and Mysore) in small Arabian and Indian vessels. The total tratle reaches an annual average of nearly £800,000 in value. Pop. (1891) 40,922, inchiding a large body of Roman Catholics, ■who have here a bishop and a college. ^langalore is also tlie head- quarters in India of tlie Basel Lutheran Mission, the meml)ers of which teach their people to weave cloth, print and bind books, and make roof tiles. The town, which was three times sacked by the Portuguese in the 16th century, was taken by Hyder Ali in 1763, and made the headquarters of his navy. In 1784 its English garrison yielded to Tippoo Sultan after a nine months' siege. It became British in 1799, and was burned by the Coorg rebels in 1837.

Mailgail, James Clarence, a gifted but hap- less Irish poet, who was l)orn in 1803, and employed for many years in the drudgery of copying in an attorney's office. His heart was framed for sufter- ing, and his whole life was a tragedy of hapless love, poverty, and intemperance, until he found rest in death at INIeath Hospital, Dublin, 20th June 1849. There is fine quality in his original verse, as well as in his translations from the Ger- man, but more especially from the old Irish, as in the impassioned ballad of Dark Roscdeen.

His Poems were published at New York in 1859 and 1870, with a Life Tiy Jolin Mitchel ; Miss Guiney, in her selections and study ( 1807 ), affirmed Poe's indebtedness to Mangan's recurrent refrains ; the standard Life is D. J. U'Donoghue's (1898).

.llailgauese (sym. Mn ; atomic Aveight, 55) is one of the iron group of heavy metals. It is darker than wrought iron, is capaltle of a high degree of polish, and is so hard as to scratch glass and steel. It is only feebly attracted by the magnet, and oxidises readily on exposure to the air. The metal occurs in nature in small quantity along with iron in meteoric stones, but may be obtained in large amount by the reduction of its sesquioxide or car- bonate by charcoal at an extreme heat.

With oxygen it forms six compounds : mangan- ous oxide, MnO ; manganic oxide, Mn.^Og ; man- ganoso-manganic oxide, Mn304; manganese dioxide, ^NlnOo ; manganic anhydride, Mn( »;, ; and perman- ganic anhydride, Mn-.Oy. Like iron it forms ])roto- salts, MnCl.i, and persalts, Mn^Clg. It also forms salts derived from an acid, H.iMnOj, such as potassium manganate, K.^MnO^,' and from an acid, HMnO^, as])otassium permanganate, KMn04. The bin(/j:i(lc, ]\ln(J..., is the chief form in which manganese is found in nature, and is the general source of the other compounds. It is known to

mineralogists as pyrolusite, and in commerce as black manganese or manganese simply. When heated alone or with sulphuric acid it gives off oxygen, and when heated with hydrochloric acid chlorine is evolved. It is largely used in the manu- facture of glass, to which it imparts a purple colour. It is also supposed to colour the amethyst.

Manganous oxide, MnO, is an olive-green pow- der. Its salts are colourless, or of a pale rose colour. The sulphate, ^InS04, in pink crystals, is largely used by the calico-printer for the produc- tion of black and brown colours, by decomposing it with bleaching powder or an alkali.

RIanganic oxide, Mn^.O:,, in octahedral crystals, forms the mineral braunite, and in the hydrated form, Mn.,03,H;0, the mineral manganite.

Red oxide of manganese, ^MugO^, is formed when any of the other oxides are heated in the air. It is found in nature as the mineral hausmannite.

Manganic anhydride, INInOg, is not knoMu in the free state. It forms a hydrated acid, H„Mn04, which forms salts. Manganate of potassium, K.jMnOj, is the best known of these. It is in green crystals, and on allowing its solution to stand exposed to the air it rapidly becomes blue, violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash ; on this account it is sometimes called chameleon mineral.

Permanganic anhydride, ISIn.jO^, is only known in solution or in a state of combination. Its solution is of a splendid red colour, but appears of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light. Permanganate of potash, KMn04, which crystallises in reddish-purple prisms, is the most important of its salts. It is largely employed in analytical chemistry, and is the basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.

Manganese is a constituent of many mineral w^aters, and is found in small quantity in the ash of most vegetable and animal substances. It is almost ah\ays associated with iron. Various pre- parations of manganese have been employed in medicine. The binoxide has been used as a sub- stitute for bismuth in dyspeptic affections, while various preparations have been tried as substitutes for iron in anjemia, but with disappointing results. The manganate and permanganate of potash readily part with their oxygen, and in weak solution are used as disinfecting and astringent lotions.

UlaUgC, a contagious disease in horses, dogs, and cattle, is, like scab in sheep, very similar to itch in the human subject, resulting from the attacks of minute mites or aeari. Some of these burrow in the skin, others move about upon the skin, especially if it be dirty or scurfy, and cause much irritation, heat, and itching, and the eruption of minute pimples, with dryness, scurfiness, baldness, and bleaching of the skin. The treatment consists in destroying the arari, and insuring the cleanli- ness and health of the skin, both of which objects are effected by washing the parts thoroughly every second day with soft soap and water, and dressing daily with sulphur or mild mercurial ointments, or with a solution containing four grains either of corrosive sublimate or arsenic to the ounce of water. Castor-oil seeds, bruised and steeped for twelve hours in buttermilk, are very successfully used by the native Indian farriers. AVhere the heat and itching are great, as is often the case in dogs, a few drops of tincture of belladonna may be used to the usual dressing, or ajiplied along with a little glycerine. Where the general health is inditlerent, as in chronic cases, the patient should be liberally fed, kept clean and comfortable, have an occa- sional alterative dose of any simple saline medicine, sucii as nitre or common salt, ami a course of such tonics as iron or arsenic. Cleanliness and

MANGNALL

MANGOSTEEN

19

occasional washing and brashing maintain the skin in a healthy state, and thus prevent its becoming a suitable nidus for the ««</•*. — The Sarcoptic mange, due to a burrowing mite, besides being highly con- tagious, is often fatal, and is specially legislated for in the Shetland Islands, where it is very pre- valent, under the Contagious Diseases Acts.

Hangnail, Richmal, of Irish extraction, but born probably in ^lancliester, 7th Marcli 1769, was the head-mistress of a ladies' school at Crofton Hall, near Wakefield, and died there 1st May 1820. Few particulars of her personal history have been pre- served ; she survives only in her redoubtable Qkcs- tious, the pride and terror of several generations of school-girls. She was an amiable and excellent woman, but as a writer she has been well called 'the very high-priestess of the great god Cram.' Of the popularity of her schoolroom encyclopa'dia, compiled entirely by herself, there can, how- ever, be no doubt : an impression, printed in 1857 in America, was taken from the 84tli London edition. It has been reprinted in England (ed. by AV right and Hodder) as recentlj' as 1892.

llangj^O [Mangifera indica, natural order Ana- cardiacefe), one of the most esteemed fruits of India. The tree grows from 40 to 50 feet high, with spreading top and numerous branches, at the extremities of wliich are the densely-crowded long lanceolate leaves. When in dower it bears some resemblance to the Sweet Cliestnut. The fruit,

/ 7

Common Mango [Mangifera indica).

which is a fleshy drupe, when fully ripe is some- what kidney-shaped or oval, varying in size from that of a small hen's egg to a large goose's egg, in colour yellow or reddish, speckled with black, and containing a large flattened stone, the kernel of which is nutritious. There are several varieties of mango. Some have the flesh of the fruit full of fibres, and are on that account considered inferior ; those that cut like an ajiple, and have few or no fibres, are the most highly esteemed. The fruit is eaten without any i>re- paration, except peeling the outer rind off. Jellies, preserves, and tarts are made of the unripe fruit, and it is also pickled. Mango was introduced into Jamaica in 1782, and is now very generally cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. The tree is ordinarily raised from seeds, but, as the finer varieties cannot be depended upon to come true from seeds, they are increased by layering and inarching. J/, si/lraf/ra, besides being eaten when ripe and fresh by the natives of India, is dried and Used medicinally. J/, opponitifolia, the fruit of which is of the size of a pullet's egg, is much esteemed in Burma.

jllangold-^vurzel. or Mangold, a German name in general use in Britain and America to designate the varieties of the Common Beet (q.v.) cultivated in fields for the feeding of cattle — Beta vnlgarts of the natural order Chenopodiacea>. The field beets difl'er from the garden beets chiefly in being larger in all their parts, and coarser. They have large roots, which in some of the varieties are red, in others greenish or whitish, in .some carrot- shaped, and in others nearly globular. The cultiva- tion of mangold as a field-ciop was introduced from France into England in 1786. At first, so little was its value known, that the leaves alone were used as food for cattle. Its importance, however, was soon appreciated, and it rapidly gained favour. It is much more patient of a high temperature than the turnip, liable to fewer diseases, and vastly more productive under favourable conditions. In highly- manured grounds in the south of England as much as from 60 to 70 tons to the acre have been raised ; throughout the south of England it is generally admitted that it is as easy to grow 30 tons of mangold to the acre as 20 tons of Swedish turnips. The lower temperature of Scotland, however, does not admit of the crop being raised there to advan- tage. The mode of culture does not vary materi- ally fi-om that followed in raising turnips. The land in which the crop is to be planted receives a deep furrow in autunm ; and, if it is quite free from perennial weeds, it is often previously well manured. Mangolds are sown both in rows on the flat ground and in drills raised l)v the plough — the former from 18 to 25 inches apart, and the latter from 25 to 28 inches wide. From 12 to 16 tons of dung with from 2 to 3| cwt. of superphosphate, 2 to 3 cwt. common salt, and 2 to 3 cwt. nitrate of soda per acre are common dressings for mangolds. Indeed, this crop can hardly be over-manured. It requires 6 or 7 lb. of seed to the acre ; and, as the gi'ains are enclosed in a hard and rough coat, they are steeped in water for t\\o days previous to their being planted, for the purpose of promoting a quick and regular 'braird.' The long red, ithe round red, and the orange and yellow globes are all favourite varieties in England. As soon as the plants are about 3 inches aliove ground, tliey arc singled out by the hanil, and their cultivation is afterwards the same in all respects as in the case of Swedish turnips. The crop should always be stored by the end of October, and should not be consumed till the following spring, by which tim<' the roots have lost their tendency to produce scour in animals, and have greatly improved in feeding value. Care has to be taken not to injure the leaves or bulbs, as they are liable to sutler from ' bleeding.' Tlie roots are stored in pits or ' clami)s,' covered with straw and a little earth, as a pro- tection in severe weather.

Mangonel. See Ballista.

MangOSteen, produced by Garcinia mangos- tana (natural order Clusiacefe), is considered the most delicious and wholesome of all fruits. The tree, which is a native of the Moluccas, grows about 20 feet higli in very regular symmetrical form. The leaves are large, oval, entire, deep dark green above with a dull lustre, olive-green below. The open flowers resemble those of a red rose, but have only four petals. The fruit, in size and shape, resembles a middling-sized orange ; it is dark brown, spotted with yellow or gray, has a thick rind, and is divided internally by thin partitions into cells. The pulp is soft and juicy, of a rose colour, refrigerant and slightly laxfitive, with a mixture of sweetness and acidity, and has an extremely delicate flavour. It may be eaten very freely with jierfect safety, and is esteemed very beneficial in fevers. It is cultivated in Java and

20

MANGROVE

MANICH^US

in the south-east of Asia ; it has recently become conunon in Ceylon, and has been successfully intro- duoeil into other tropical countries.

Ulaiisrove ( Uhizoiiliora ), a genus of calycitloral clicotyleilons, inchuling about fifty species, of vhieii the imliftinct affinities have constituted a sejiarate order (Khizophoracea'). They are trees ami shrubs, all trojiical (especially South Ameri- can), and natives of coasts, particularly about the mouths of rivers, where they grow in the mud, and form a close thicket down to and within the margin of the sea, even to low-water mark, forming the characteristic mangrove-swamps so often descriljed

A Mangi'ove-swanip.

by travellers and naturalists. Most species send down roots from their branches, and thus lapidly extend over large spaces, forming secure retreats for multitudes of aquatic birds, whilst crabs and slicll-fish are also to be found in them in vast num1)ers. Tlieir interlacing roots retain mud, sea- weed, &c. , and thus rapidly form soil and encroach upon tlie shallow sea ; on the north coast of Java and elsewhere their geological importance is speci- ally marked. The seeds have the peculiarity of germinating before the fruit has fallen, a long thick radicle pioceeding from the seed, piercing its cover- ing, and extending rapidly downwards. When the fruit dro])s, the stout heavy radicle pierces the mud, and the young tree is thus planted in the ))r<)per position forthwith. The fruit of the com- mon mangrove {R. Mangle) is sweet, eatable ; and its juice, when fermented, yields a light wine. The liurk is sometimes imported for the sake of its tannin, in which all the species are rich. Man- grove wood is also imported from the West Indies. The Cliinese and East Indian species (R. gymtio- rliiz't, live.) are of similar habit and properties; some of the latter are separated as a distinct genus, Bruguiera. — The so-called White Mangrove is A\icoiinia (q. v.).

.llaiihattaii Island, the island on which the great i)art of New York city stands.

Mania. See In.sanity.

nianU'a, a gold-field long worked by the Portu- guese, 1,S0 miles N\V. of tlie ]>ort of Sofala, and now mostly included in tlie IJritish sjdiere of influ- ence as an eastern section of Mashonahuid (q.v.). It is intersected by tlie railway from the Pungwe Kiver (near IJeira) to Fort Salisbury.

nianiellUMlS, or M.\xi, the founder of the sect of till' Manich;cans, who, according to the Moham- inedaii and most trustworthy tradition, was boin at Ecb.'itana about 215 A.b., and educated at Ctesiiihon under his father Futak, who joined the

sect of the Moghtasilah (Baptists) in which his son was brought up. This sect was connected with the Manda-ans (q.v.), and most probably also with the Elkesaites and Hemerobaptists, and may also have borrowed something from Christianity. At about the age of thirty Mani began to proclaim liis new religion at the court of the Persian king, Sapor L, and then undertook long missionary journeys, re- turning to the court about 270. Pursued by the enmity of the Magians he was obliged to flee, was protected by the next king, Hornmzd, but under his successor, Bahram I., was abandoned to the hatred of his enemies, who crucified him in 276 and flayed his lifeless body. His numerous epistles and writings are lost, and we know of them only from the Arabic catalogue, the FihriM, and from allusions in Epiphanius, Augustine, and Photius.

Manich.eism was a great religious system that sprung up in western Asia about the close of the 3d century, and which, although it utterly dis- claimed being denominated Christian, yet Avas reckoned among the heretical bodies of the Church. It was not an ofli'shoot from Christianity, but was based on the ancient Babylonian religion, and was thus really a Semitic religion of nature modified by Christian and Persian elements, systematised and elevated into a gnosis, and made applicable to human life by a deduced system of ethics. But, while it borrowed nothing from Christianity proper, it derived part of its terminology and some of its conceptions from Christianity as developed among the sects of the Basilidians, Marcionites, and Bar- desanites. The Western INIanichoeans adopted many Christian elements Avhich were not present in the original system of its founder nor in its purer Eastern development. It is possible, al- though it has not yet been satisfactorily proved, that it borrowed some elements from Buddhism. Baur was the first to work out the theory of a Buddhist element, and was followed by Neander, Hilgenfeld, and other scholars; but his argument has been assailed by Le Page Renouf, Zeller, Lightfoot, and Harnack. Manich;eism was essentially a complete dualism, materialistic in so far as the physical and ethical were con- founded, and its success, says Harnack, was due to the fact that it united an ancient mythologj^ and a thoroughgoing materialistic dualism with an exceedingly simple spiritual worship and a strict morality. As has been said, it assumed two chief principles, whence had sprung all visible and invisible creation, and which — totally antagonistic in their natures — were respectively styled the Light, the Good, or God, and the Darkness, tlie Bad, Matter, or Archon. They each inhabited a region akin to their natures, and excluding each other to such a degree that the region of Darkness and its leader never knew of the existence of that of the Light. Twelve a^ons — corresi)onding to the twelve signs of the zodiac and the twelve stages of the Avorld — had emanated from the Primeval Light ; while Darkness, filled Avith the eternal fire, Avhich burned but shone not, Avas peopled by demons, Avho Avere constantly fighting among themselves. In one of these contests, pressing toAvards the outer edge, as it Avere, of their region, they became aware of the neigiibouring region, and forthwith united, attacked it, and succeeded in carrying captive the Kay of Light that was sent against them at the head of the hosts of Light, and Avhich Avas the embodiment of the Ideal or Primal Man. The God of Light himself noAv hastened to the rescue, and Avith the help of ucav a-ons defeated Darkness and set free the ])rimal man in his greater and better part. The smaller and fainter portion, hoAvever — the Jesus patibiUs of the Western IManicha?ans — remained in the

MANICH^US

MANILA

L'l

hands of the powers of I^arkness, and out of this they fornied, after the ideal of the Man of Light, mortal man. But even the small fraction of light left in liini, broken in two souls, would have pre- • vailed against tlieni, had they not found means to further divide and subdivide it by the propagation of this man. Thus man was originally formed in the image of Satan, but contained witliin him a spark of the Iieavenly light, which awaits its final deliverance by separation from the enveloping dark- ness. Tiie demons sought to ol)scure it further by sensuality and dark forms of belief and faith, such as Paganism and Judaism ; but the spirits of Light are constantly engaged in drawing out the dimmed and buried light hidden in the world, by opening up to men the true gnosis of nature, and weaning them away from sensuality and error. Thus there appeared in the world a succession of teachers, as Adam, Noah, Abraham, and probably Zoroaster and Buddha. Jesus also was such a teacher, but he was neither tlie historical Christ of Cliristianity, nor the Messiah of the Jews, but a phantasmal Jesus (Jesus impatibilis), who did not actually suffer, as lie seemed, on the cross, but only allowed himself to become an example of endurance and passive pain for liLs own, tiie souls of light. Since even his immediate adherents, the apostles, were not strong enough to sutler as he had commanded them, he promised them a Paraclete, who should complete his own work. Tiiis Paraclete was ^Lani, wlio surrounded himself, like Chiist, with twelve apostles, and sent them into the world to teacii and to preach his doctrine of salvation. The end of the world will be fire, in which the region of Darkness will be consumed.

To attain to the region of eternal light, it is nece.ssary that Passion, or rather the Body, should be utterly subdued ; hence rigorous absti- nence from all sensual pleasures — asceticism, in fact, to the utmost degree — is to be exercised. The believers are divided into two classes — the E/euti (Perfecti) and the Catechu me ni (Auditorcs). The Elect have to take the oath of abstinence from evil and profane speech (including ' religious terms sucli as Christians use respecting the Godhead and religion'), and fi-om flesh, eggs, milk, fish, wine, and all intoxicating drinks ; ifrom the possession of riches, or, indeed, any property whatsoever; from hurting any l)eing — animal or vegetable ; from heeding their own family, or showing any pity to him who is not of the Manicha;an creed ; and finally, from breaking their chastity by marriage or otherwise. Tiie Auditors were comparatively free to partake of the good things of this world, but they had to provide for tiie subsistence of the Elect, and tlieir highest aim also was tiie attain- ment of the state of their sujierior brethren. In this Manicluean worship, tiie Visible Representa- tives of the Liglit (sun and moon) were revered, but only as representatives of the Ideal, of the Good or supreme God. Neitlier altar nor sacrifice was to be found in their places of religious assem- blies, nor did tliey erect sumptuous temples. Fasts, prayers, occasional readings in the supposed writ- ings of Mani, were all their outer worship. The Old Testament tliey rejected unconditionally ; of the New Testament they adopted certain por- tions, as revised and redacted by the Paraclete. Sunday, as the day on wiiich the visible universe was to be consumed, the day consecrated to tiie sun, was kept as a gieat festival ; and the most solemn day in their year was the anniversary of the death of Mani. The later Manich;¥ans cele- brated mysteries analogous to the Cliristian sacra- ments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper. St Augustine belonged to the sect for about nine years, and is our chief authority on this subject.

The outward liistoiy of the sect is one of almost

continuous persecution. Yet it spread rapidly from Persia and Mesopotamia to Syria, northern Africa, and even Constantinople and Rome, drawing ad- herents from the remnants of tlie old Gnostic sects, especially from the Marcionites, and on tlie other hand from men of a rationalistic temperament who were repelled by sudi dogmas as tliat of tlie Incar- nation. Both tlie Roman and Byzantine emperors enacted stringent laws against the Manic]ia?ans, the most severe being Valentinian III. and Jus- tinian. Pope Leo tlie Great persecuted them in Rome, and in nortliern Africa they were exter- minated by the Vandals. But their peculiar doc- trines lingered on into tlie middle ages, and influenced many sects, as tlie Priscillianists, Pauli- cians, Bogomiles, Catharists, and Albigenses.

See Beausobre, Hist, critique de Manichee ct du Mani- ch^i.rme ( 1734 ) ; Baur, Das Manich. Eel iqionssy stein (1831); Flugel, Mani (1862); Kessler's Untersuchung zur Genegis des Manich. Jieli;nonsgi/stem (187*)), and his excellent articles, 'Mani' and 'Manichaer,' in vol. ix. of Herzog-Plitt's Real-Enciiclopddie ; Geyler, Das Si/stem des Manichceismus (1875); also Hamack's admirable article in the EncycJopcedia Britannica.

^lanihiki Islands^, a group of low, M-ooded atolls, scattered over the central Pacific, between tlie ^larquesas and L'nion groups ; total area, .")5 sq. 111. ; ])op. 1600. Most of tliem (Caroline, Maiden, Starbuck, Penrhyn, &c.) belong to Britain.

Manila (by English people often spelt Manilla), chief town of the Philippine Islands (q.v.) and, till the blockade liy a L'nited States fleet in May 1S9S and tlie subsequent American occupation of tlie Philippines, capital of tlie Spanish possessions in eastern Asia, stands on tlie east side of a wide bay on the SW. coast of Luzon, 650 miles SE. f)f Hong- kong, with wliich it is connected \>y telegraph ( 1881 ). It is divided into two portions by the little river Pasig. On the south bank stands the slee]iy old town (founded in 1571 by Legazpi), .surrounded by crumbling walls, with tolerably wide straight streets crossing each other at riglit angles. Here are the archbishop's palace, numerous churches and monas- teries, the cathedral, mint (closed in 1889). univer- sity, Jesuit observatory, arsenal, and the barracks of the Spanish garrison. On the north bank are the modern suburbs, Binondo, ivc. , the commercial and native quarters, witli the palaces of the governor- general and the admiral of tlie station. The city is liable to visitations of earthquakes, typhoons, and thunderstorms of exceptional violence : for instance, a violent earthquake did great damage in 1880, whilst a hurricane in 1882 ruined half the city. For this reason many of the old stone houses and churches are in ruins, the streets are liglited, not with gas, but with kerosene oil lamps, and most of the newer houses are built of wood. The native Jiouses are generally constructed of bamboo and thatched with the leaves of the iiipa palm. Glass is not used in the windows, but the flat shell of a large oyster, and the window-frames all slide hori- zontally. This is to exclude the great heat, the mean for the year being 82^ F. ; but during the rainy season (May to November) it ranges from 65° to 68°. The total population is estimated at nearly 30O,(W0, for the most part native Tagals, though there are some 25,000 Chinese, large numbers descended from these two laces, and aliout 5(XX) Spaniards. The people are fond of dancing and music : but the predominant passions of the native poi>ulation are cock-fighting, carried on in licensed cockpits, which yield a large revenue to the goven:- ment, and betting and gambling. Almost the only industry is the manufacture of cigars, which emploj's 21,000 women and 1500 men. The harbour is not very safe during south-west and north-ea>t winds, although shelter is aftordetl by a small breakwater, and imi>ioveiiient works were in operation for tec

MAN IN

MANITOBA

years until suddenly stopped in 1889. Larce ocean goinjjf vessels anchor at the naval station of Cavite, 2 miles SW. A railway, 120 miles long, from .Maiiihi to Dagmtan, was opened in 1892. Since 1893 the city has been liglited l)y electricity. The principal port of the I'hilippines, Manila has an export trade valued apinoxiniately at £3,400,000 annually, and an inqjort trade tiiat falls hut little short of that figure. Sugar, hemp, cigars and tobacco, and cotl'ee account for three-fourths of the exports, and cotton goods, rice, wine, silk, and tlour figure most prominently amongst the imports. Nearly onedialf of the trade is carried on under tlie liritish Hag, one-fourth under the Spanish, and one- seventh under that of tiie United States. The Spanish authorities were very jealous of foreigners settling in Manila, especially of Chinese. The city sutl'ereil from a great fire in 1893, shared in the revolution that began in 1896, and saw in its harbour the destruction of the Spanish fleet by the American commander Dewey in May 1898. For Manilla HciDj), see Abaca.

Mailin, Daxiele, an Italian patriot of Jewish descent, was born 13th May 1804 at Venice, studied law at Padua, and subsequently practised at the bar. From 1831 he became a recognised leader of liberal opinion in Venice. Previous to the outbreak of 1848 Manin was imprisoned for presenting a somewhat outspoken petition to the authorities ; but on the promulgation of the news that Paris, Naples, and Tuscany were in revolution he was released in triumph by the poi)ulace, and was at once invested with supreme power. From the period of his election to the presidency of the Venetian repultlic Manin's energies were devoted to the organisation of the inhabitants for self- defence. During the annexation of Loinbardy to Piedmont he laid down his authority ; but on the defeat of the Sardinian army at Novara, 23d March 1849, he I'esumed it, and was the animating spirit of the entire population of Venice during the heroic defence of the city for five months against the besieging Austrian army. On the 24th of August Venice capitulated ; but Manin, with forty of the principal citizens, being excluded from the amnesty, quitted the city. He retired to Paris, where he taught Italian, and where he died of heart-disease, 22d September 1857. The bones of this truly great and noble man were brought to free Venice in 1868, and a statue of him Avas erected in 1875. See Lives by Henri Martin (Paris, 1859), Finzi (1872), and Errera (1875).

niaiiioc, Mandioc, or Cassava {Blanihot iitilisainia), a plant of the natural order Euphor- biacea^ a native of tropical America, and much cul- tivated there, in tropical Africa, and in other tropical countries. Manioc, or MancUoca, is the Brazilian name, Cassava the West Indian ; and in Peru and some other parts of South America the name is J^(ca or Yucca. Tiie plant is sbrubliy, with brittle stems 6 to 8 feet higli, and crooked branches, at the extremities of Avhicb are the large palmate leaves and green flowers. The root is tuberous, of immense size, weighing often as much as 30 lb. Tlie milky, acrid juice which permeates every part of the plant is a deadly i)oison in its fresh state, owing to tlie presence of iiydrocyanic acid, which is quickly dis- sipatcfl b}' heat. The juice, inspissated by boiling, forms the excellent sauce calle<l Casareep (q.v. ), and fermented witii molasses yields an intoxi- cating beverage called Oin/cou ; whilst the root, grated, drietl on liot metal plates, and roughly powdered, becomes an article of food, largely used in Soutii America, and tliere very generally known as Farina (Port., 'meal '). It is made into thin cakes, like tlie oatmeal-cakes of Scotland, which are formed, however, not by mixing it with

water, but by the action of lieat softening and agglutinating the particles of starch. It is also imjiorted into Britain, to be used in manufac- tories as starch. The true starch of manioc, separated in the ordinary manner from the fibre, is known in commerce as Brazilian Arroicroof. From it tapioca is made, by heating it on hot l)lates, and stirring with an iron rod ; the starch- grains burst, some of the starch is converted into dextrine, and the whole agglomerates into small irregular masses. The Fcarl Tapioca of the shoi)s, consisting of small spherical grains, is not a product of manioc but of potato starch. — Another species or variety of manioc is also cultivated, the roots of which contain a perfectly bland juice, and are eaten raw, roasted, or boiled. This, the Sweet Cassava or Sweet Juca {M. Aijri, said to be a native of Africa as well as of America), has the root of longer shape than the common or bitter cassava, and smaller. — The manioc is easily propagated by cuttings of the stem, and is of rapid growth, attain- ing maturity in six months. The produce is at least six times that of wheat.

Ulailipiir, a native state in the north-east of India, occupying some 8000 sq. ni. of for the most part heavily timbered mountain-land between Bur- ma, Assam, Chittagong, and Cachar ; pop. 221,000, collected most thickly in one valley, G50 sq. m., situated 2500 feet above sea-level. The men are iiicorrigil)ly lazy, but passionately fond of the game of Polo (q.v.). The Manipuris combine ]\Iongolian and Aryan characteristics, and are mainly Hindus in faith. The wild hill-men belong to the Naga and other stocks. A British political agent was established at the raj.ah's court in the town of Manipur or Impliail (pop. 40,000) in 1835. In March 1891 Mr Quinton, chief-commissioner of Assam, accompanied by an escort of Ghoorkas, came hither in March on a mission ; and he and Mr (h'imwood, the resident, Avere overpowered and killed. A British military expedition reached the capital before the end of April ; and after trial, the Ilegent and a prince were transported for life, and the ' Senaputty ' and chief-general executed. See Mrs Grimwood, My Three, Years in Manipur {\%^\).

Maiiis. See Pangolin.

Maiii.ssa. See Magnesia.

Manistee'* capital of a county in Michigan, is on Lake Michigan, at the mouth of the Manistee Kivei-, 135 uules NW. of Lansing ; pop. ( 1890) 12,812.

Dlailito'ba, a province of Canada, bounded on the W. by the district of Assiniboia, and on the NW. and N. by the districts of Saskatchewan and Keewatin. Its eastern boundary is the province of Ontario and the unorganised territory east of Keewatin. On the S. the boundary is 49° N. lat. The province is traversed by several rivers, among others the Assiniboine, with its many tribu- taries, the chief of which are the Souris, the Pem- bina, and the Red River. The Winnipeg River Hows for 60 or 70 miles through the eastern portion of the inovince into Lake Winnipeg. The prin- cipal lakes are Winnipeg, 8500 sq. m. ; Manitoba, 1900 sq. m. ; and Winnipegosis, 1936 sq. m. The country consists for the most part of a level plain, with occasional undulations. A good deal is said from time to time about the severity of the climate. The summer mean is 65" to 70° — nearly the same as that in the state of New Vork. In winter the thermometer occasionally sinks to 30', 40", and 50^ below zero ; but these extreme temperatures are very rare. The atmosi)here is bright and dry, and the cold is not so much felt as in many countries with a higher temperature and .a mure humid atmosphere. Warm clothing — especially when driv- ing— and warm houses are necessary to resist the severity of the weather. Very little snow falls on

MANITOBA

MANITOULIN ISLANDS

23

tlie prairies, the average deiith being about 18 to 24 inches ; the native horses graze out of doors all the winter. Ploughing generally begins during April. The harvest takes place in August and Septemljer. Trees are found along the rivers and streams, and in greater abundance in the eastern and northern ))arts of the province ; but Manitoba is not well wooded.

The population in 1891 was 154,442. Presby- terians are most numerous ; next come in order Church of England, Methodists, and Roman Cath- olics. Ethiiologicallv they were classified in 188G as follov/s: of Englisir origin, 25,949; Irish, 21,180; Scotch, 25,676 ; Indians, 5575 ; half-breeds, 7985 ; French, 6821; Germans, 11,082; Icelanders, 2468. Among the principal cities and towns are Winni- peg, 25,000 ; Portage-la-Prairie, 4000 ; Brandon, 4000 ; and Selkirk, 1000. The chief industry is agriculture ; the soil is of renuxrkable depth and fertility, and in favourable seasons the crops are large, considering the imperfect methods of culti- vation practised. Manitoba wheat and flour are regarded as the finest in the continent. Much of it is bought up by American millers, the product being mi.xed witii flours made from grain produced in the United States. Other grains succeed admir- ably, and an endeavour is being made to encourage the growth of flax. Vegetables and roots are un- usually iirolific and of great size. Wheat-growing was for some few years the staple industry ; but the farmers are now engaged more in mixed farm- ing, including dairy-fariiung and the raising of cattle and sheep. Fruit-growing is not carried on to any extent, although many of the smaller varieties — such as the strawberry, black and red currant, raspberry, gooseberry, and cranberiy — appear to be indigenous. In minerals the province is not very rich, but coal is found in southern Manitoba, although it is nat yet worked to any extent. Manufactures of various kinds are increas- ing ; and Winnipeg is to a large extent tlie distrib- uting centre for the western part of the Dominion. Big game is still found in the less accessible parts of the inovince — moose, bear, and some khuls of deer. Small game is plentiful — principally prairie chicken and wild duck. Close times are provided for the protection of all the principal wild animals and birds. A considerable fishing industry is carried on in the rivers and lakes, and white-fish and pickerel are caught in large quantities.

Ut the imports into the })rovince, nearly half comes from the United States. The exports, animals and their produce, are sent to Britain and the United States.

The government is administered by a lieutenant- governor, appointed liy the governor-in-council. He is assisted by an Executive Council and a Legislative Assemblj' of forty members elected by the peoi)le. There is only one House of Parliament in Mani- toba. The province is represented by four memljcrs in the Dominion Senate and by seven in the House of Commons. Serious difficulty arose between llio Canadian government and tiie provincial adminis- tration in regard to education. The Catholics of Manitoba had till 1890 separate schools, but in that year denominational schools were abolished by the local Act, which estaldished free non-sectarian schools supported by rates. Agitation for their res- toration was vigorously carried on ; the Dominion government interfered to jJiotect the privileges of the Catholic minority, and ultimately in 1896 a compromise was arrived at.

In Manitoba the Dominion gov«rnnient ofTers free grants of land — 160 acres — to every nuile settler above eighteen years of age, and to every female who is the hea-d of a family. There is still a considerable quantity of government land undis- posed of in the north-western and north-eastern

parts of the province. The Canadian Pacific Kail- Avay Company, the Canada North-west Land Com- pany, the Manitoba and North-western liailway Company, and the Hudson Bay Company have a con- siderable quantity of land for sale in difl'ercnt ]iarts of the province, the price ranging from !?2.50 up to $7 or .$8 per acre, according to locality and contiguity to railways and settlements. A large land grant has also recently been promised to the Hudson Bay Railway Company. Improved farms are to be had on rcasonaViIe teiins at moder- ate prices. The Dominion Lands Cominissh)ner is established in Winnipeg, and there are land and immigration agents in ditterent parts of the Ijrovince.

Manitoba is in communication by rail with the Atlantic seaboard and the Pacific, and with all parts of Canada and the L'nited States. The constructi<ui of the Canadian Pacific Railway — completed in 1885 — has naturally been of immense advantage to the province. The first railway to Manitoba was a continuation of the United States system from Pembina to Winnipeg, and was opened in 1879. The Northern Pacific Rail- way has direct connection with Winnipeg and Brandon ; and a railway is projected from Winni- peg to Hudson Bay.

Until 1868 what is now known as Manitoba formed a portion of the territory under the control of the Hudson Bay Company. The first agricul- tural settlement in the country Avas formed in 1812, under the auspices of the Earl of Selkirk, who took out a party of Highlanders in that year. They Mere located at Kildonan and Selkirk, on the Red River, about 20 miles north of the site of the present city of Winnipeg. In 1868 the company gave up their exclusive rights to the government of the territory, on certain con- ditions^aniong others a monev payment of £300,000 and a considerable grant of land. The province of Manitoba was constituted by an Act pas.sed in 1870. One of the first events of importance that happened in Manitoba was the Riel rebellion in 1869-70. It arose out of a feeling of some of the inhabitants that their position and rights had not been sufliciently considered in the transfer already mentioned. The rebellion col- lapsed in 1870 on the arrival at Fort (Jarry, the site of the present city of AVinnipeg, of the expe- dition under Colonel (afterwards Lord) A\'olseley. Most of the leaders in the rebellion were subse- quently amnestied. The progress of ]\Ianitoba from an agricultural point of view has been some- what remarkable, but its political history has been comparatively uneventful, excepting for the exist- ence of occasional friction between the provincial and Federal authorities since 1880, in connection with railway extension in the province. After pro- tracted negotiations these ditt'erences have, how- ever, been di.sposed of.

References may be oiade to the following works : Bryce's Manitoba : Its Jnfanrif, Groicth, and Prtftnt Condition (1882) ; Christie's Manitoba Described (1885) ; Macoun's Manitoba and the Great North-u-iH (Loud. 18S3); Grant's Ocean to Ocean (1873); Fream's Cana- dian Aoriridture (1885); Official Ilandbuok to Canada (Lond. 1890); Haydon and Selwyn's North America (1883); A Canadian Tour (ISSii); The Statistical Year- book of Canada (Ottawa, 1890).

Ulaiiitou. See Aniaial-avorship, Vol. I. p.

288.

Ulaiiitou, a summer-resort at the base of Pike's Peak, Colorado, 6296 feet above the level of the sea. It is the Saratoga of the west, with soda springs and several large summer hotels. Pop. 422.

UlailitOlllill Islands, a chain of islands in Lake Huron, separating it from Georgian Bay. The principal are Grand ]\lanitouliu (80 miles long

24

MANITOWOC

MANNING

and 28 wide), Cockburn Isle, and Driimmond Isle ; the last belon^rs to the state of Michi^'an, the rest to Ontario. All are irrej^ular and striking in their natural features, and Grand Manitoulin and Cockburn are covered with large forests of pine. Pop. about 2000.

ilanitOWOe', capital of Manitowoc county, Wisconsin, lies at the mouth of the Manitowoc Kiver, on Lake Michigan, 77 miles by rail N. of Milwaukee. It has a good harbour, and shipbuild- ing is actively carried on. Lumber is sawn, and fur- niture, inachinerv, castings, and leather are manu- factured. Pop. (1890) 7710.

Mailka'tO, caiiital of nine Eartli county, Min- nesota, on the right bank of the Minnesota River, 86 nules SW. of St Paul. Three lines of railway pass, and small steamboats can ascend as far as this jioint. The town contains a state normal school, Roman Catholic college, &c., and has varied manufactures. Pop. (1890)8838.

llailll. Horace, American educationist, was born at Franklin, Massachusetts, 4th ]\Iay 1796, gradu- ated at Brown University in 1819, and commenced the study of law. He was elected to the legislature of Massachusetts in 1827, and succeeded in found- ing the state lunatic asylum. Removing to Boston, he was elected (1833) to the state senate, of which he became president. After editing the revised statutes of the state, he was for eleven years secretary of the Board of Education. He gave up business and politics, and devoted his whole time to the cause of education, working usually lifteen hours a day. In 1843 he made a visit to educa- tional establishments in Europe, and his Report was reprinted l)oth in England and America. In 1848 he was elected to congress, as the successor of Jolin Quincy Adams, whose example he followed in energetic opposition to the extension of slavery. In 1853 he accepted the presidency of Antioch College, at Yellow Springs, Oiiio, where he lal)oured until his death, August 2, 1859. See his Life and IVorks (5 vols. 1898), and Hindale's /fo/-«cc il/rt»?«. and the Common School System (1898).

Ulailliaf a concrete saccharine exudation ob- taineil by making transverse incisions into the stems of cultivated trees oi Fraxinus Ornus. The manna ash is cultivated chiefly in Sicily and Cala- luia for the purpose of obtaining manna. In July or August the collectors make deep cuts through the Ijark to the wood near the base of the tree ; and if the weather be Avarm and favourable, the manna begins to ooze out of the cuts sloMdy, and hardens in lumps or flakes, which are from time to time removed liy the collectors. Manna is a light porous substance, usually in stalactiform pieces, 1 to 6 inches long, crystalline, friable, yellowish in colour, with a honey-like oilour and a sweetish, somewhat bitter taste. It is used in medicine as a gentle purgative for young children. It consists of about 60 to 80 per cent, of mannite, about 10 per cent, moisture, a l)itter substance, and other less imiiortant constituents. There are several other manna-yielding plants besides the ash, especially the manna-bearing Eucalyptus of Australia ( Eiirali/ptus iii'iii/iifcra), which is non-purgative, and is a favourite sweetmeat with the children of that country. Small quantities are found on the com- mon larch in some districts ; this kind is known under the name of maima of Briancon.

Tiie manna of the Israelites, \viiich they ate during their wanderings in the wilderness, Avas identifled by Ehrenl»erg with the saccharine sub- stance called ]\Ioiint Sinai Manna, which is pro- duced in that region by a shrub, Tamarix manni- fcra, a species of Tamarisk (q. v.), from the branches of which it falls to the ground. It does not, how- ever, contain any mannite, but consists wholly of

mucilagdnous sugar. The exudation which con- cretes into this manna is caused by the punctures made in the bark by insects of the genus Coccus (C. munniparus), which sometimes cover the branches. It is a kind of redilish syrup, and is eaten l>y the Arabs and by the monks of Mount Sinai like honey Mith their bread. Others have supposed that the manna of the Jews was pro- duced by a species of Camel's Thorn (q.v.).

Ulaillicrs, a nolde family of Northumbrian extraction, their ancestor, Henry de Maners, having in 1178 been lord of the manor of Ethale, or Etal, in that county. His descendant, Sir Robert de Manners, was governor of Norham Castle in 1327. In 1454 another Sir Robert de Manners was sherift' of Northumberland ; in 1525 his grandson was raised to the earldom of Rutland ; and in 1703 the tenth earl was raised to the duke- dom. The eldest son of the third duke was the celebrated Marquis of Granby (q.v.). The chief seat of the family is Belvoir Castle, 7 miles W. by S. of Grantham, a large castellated pile, recon- structed by Wyatt, and commanding a splendid view. Crabbe was chaplain here. See works by EUer (1841) and Allen (1874).

UlaiinllCiui, the capital formerly of the Rhenish Palatinate, and now the chief trading-town in Baden, lies low in a fertile plain on the right bank of the Rhine, here 400 yards Avide and joined by the Neckar, 53 miles S. of Frankfort and 38 N. of Carlsruhe. The fortifications have been converted into gardens, and the town is remarkable for its cleanliness and regularity, the whole of it being laid out in quadrangular blocks. The palace, built in 1720-29 by the Elector-Palatine Charles Philip, is one of the largest in Germany, covering 15 acres, with a facade 580 yards long, and 1500 windows. The Schillerplatz is adorned with colossal statues of Schiller, Dalberg, and the actor and dramatist Iffland ( 1759-1814). A great and increasing river- trade is carried on, the harbour having been opened in 1875. The manufactures also are important, of iron, cigars, carpets, india-rubber, &c. Pop. (1875) 46,453 ; (1885) 61,273, of whom 26,904 were Catho- lics, and 4249 Jews. Mannheim is heard of as early as 705, but remained a mere village till 1606, when a castle was built by the elector-palatine, around Avhich a town grew up, peopled chiefly l)y Protes- tant refugees from the Low Countries. It was several times taken and retaken during the wars of the 17tli century, totally destroyed by the French in 1689, rebuilt and strongly fortified, and in 1795 severely bombarded by the Austrians. See works by Feciit (1864) and Feder ( 1875-77).

niailllillg:, Henry Edward, a cardinal of the Catholic Ciiurch, was born 15th July 1808, at Totte- ridge in Hertfordshire, was educated at Harrow and Balliol College, Oxford, and, after taking a double first in 1830, was made a Fellow of ]\Ierton. He soon came to the front as an eloquent i^reacher and as a leader of the Tractarian party. In 1834 he was appointed to a country rectory in Sussex, and married a lady whose sisters were the wives of Samuel and Henry Wilberforce. Mrs Manning died after a few months of married life. In 1840 her husband became Archdeacon of Chichester. But in 1851, deeply moved by the final decision in the 'Gorham Case' (q.v.), he left the Church of England and joined the Church of Rome. His advancement in that communion was rapid from the first; having been oidained priest, he studied for some ye<ars in Rome, and in 1857 he founded the con- gregation of the Oblates of St Charles Boriomeo at Bayswater, London. He was made provost of Westminster, and in 1865, on the death of Cardinal Wiseman, was promoted to be Archbishop of Westminster. At the (Jicumenical Council of

MANNING

MANSEL

1870, Manning was one of the most zealous sup- porters and promoters of the infallibility dogma; aii<l, named cardinal in 1875, he continued an inlluential leader of the Ultramontane section of the clmrcli. Besides heing the foremost spirit in most Catholic movements in England, he took part in many non-sectarian good works designed to better the social life of the people, such as the temperance movement; and he was a member of the Royal Commissions on the Housing of the Poor (1885) and on Education (1886). Before his secession to Rome, he published several volumes of powerful seimons ; his subsequent writings were mainly polemical. He revised a numljer of articles in this work. A devout prelate, a churchly states- man, and a practical reformer, he died 14th January 1892. The Life by E. S. Purcell (2 vols. 1896) was considered hardly fair to his memory, and provoked controversy. A short Life by A. W. Hutton had appeared in 1892. Manning wrote on infallibility, the Vatican Council, Ultramontanism, the Four Great Evils of the Day (2d ed. 1871 ), Internal Mis- sion of the Holy Ghost ( 1875), The Catholic Church and Modern Society ( 18S0 ), Eternal Priesthood (1883), Characteristics (ed. by W. S. Lilly, 1885), &c. Manning, Robert. See Bruxxe, Robert de.

Mannite, CHH8(0H)g, is a peculiar saccharine matter which forms the principal constituent of Manna (q. v.); it is also found in several kinds of fungi, in asparagus, celery, onions, «S:c. It is most readily obtained by digesting manna in hot alcohol.

Ulauoa. See El Dorado.

Man-of-war. See Navy.

Man-of-war Bird. See Frigate Bird.

Manometer (Gr. manos, 'thin,' 'rare') is pro- perly an instrument for measuring the rarity of the air or of other gases ; but the name is most frequently applied to instruments for indicating the elastic pressure of gases, which is always, for each kind of gas, inversely proportional to its rarity, or directly proportional to its density. The several kinds of Barometers (q.v. ) are really mano- meters, and so is the steam-gauge of a Steam- engine (q.v.).

Manor, in English law, denotes the land held by a body of tenants under one seignory or lord- ship. Manors were proliably formed by the gradual establishment of feudal rights over free townsliips and subject communities of villeins or serfs ; but, according to legal theory, the lord deri\es his rights from the king or from some superior lord. In a fully-organised manor the local customs are enforced by three courts : a Court Baron for the free tenants, who are emphatically the barones or men of the manor ; a Customary Court for the copyholders, who hold l)y base or customary tenure; and a Court Leet, in which officers are elected and minor offences punished. The lord's demesne includes lands occupied by himself and by his tenants-atwill, including customary tenants. P'ree- hold lands do not form part of the lord's demesne ; but free tenants are essential to the existence of a manor. Wliere the services of free tenants have been allowed to pass into desuetude, the manor survives as a ' manor by reputation,' but the Cus- tomary Court is kept alive for the purpose of recording acts and events which affect the title to copyhold lands, and of collecting the quitrents, fines, &c. , which are payable to the lord. No new free tenure can be created in Englaml since the statute Quia Emptores, passed in 1290 ; all existing manors, tlierefore, must trace their origin from before that time. The king himself was lord of many manors in right of his crown ; and these are called manors of ancient demesne, to distinguish them from lands which fell casually into the king's hands

by forfeiture or otherwise. Manors closelj' resemble the feudal estates known to the law of Scotland. In tlie United States there is no institution corre- sponding to the manor. See Feudalism.

Manrent (or properly, Maxred), Bonds of, agreements which used to be entered into in the Highlands of Scotland between the greater and lesser magnates, where protection on the one hand was stipulated in return for allegiance on the other.

Manresa, a town of Spain, on the Cardoner, 41 miles by rail NW. of Barcelona. It has a tine church ( 1020-15th century ), the cave of Ignatius Loyola, and manufactures of cotton, broadcloths, brandy, tS:c. In 1811 it was fired by Marshal Mac- donald — an outrage avenged by the Catalan knives of the townsfolk. Pop. 16,5*26.

Mans, Le, a picturesque city of France, the capital formerly of the province of Maine, ami imw of the department of Sarthe, on the left bank of the river Sarthe, 132 miles SW. of Paris by rail. The cathedral, 390 feet long, has a Romanesque nave of the 11th and 12th centuries, and a match- less Pointed-Gothic choir of the 13th century, 104 feet high, with splendid stained glass. In the right transept is the monument of Berengaria, Cceur-de- Lion's qneen. There are two other interesting churches, and both prefecture and seminary occupy old conventual buildings, the former comprising also a museum and a lilu-ary of 55,000 volumes. Le Mans does a large trade in poultry and clover seed, and manufactures candles, woollens, lace, soap, &c. Pop. ( 1872) 42,654 ; ( 1891 ) 53,282. The Cenomanum of the Romans, and the birthplace of Henry II. of England, Le Mans witnessed in 1793 the dispei-sion and massacre of more than 10,000 Vendeans ; and in January 1871 the defeat, after a stubborn resistance, of 100,000 Frenchmen under Chanzy by Prince Frederick-Charles. A statue of Chanzy was erected in 1885, and one of Belon (q.v.) in 1887. See Hublin, Le Mans Pittorcsque ( 1885).

Mansard Roof, a form of roof invented by Francois Mansart (1598-1666), a distinguished French architect. It is constructed with a break in the slope of the roof, so that each side has tMo planes, the lower being steeper than the upper. The framework ought to be arranged so that its parts are in equilibrium. This kind of roof has the

ad\antage over the common form of giving more space in the roof for living-rooms.

Manse, in Scotch law, is the designation of a dwelling-house of the minister of the Established Church, and in popular use the term is often applied generally to the dwelling-house of any minister of a dissenting congregation, though no legal right exists in the latter case. In the Estab- lished Church every first minister of a rural parish is entitled to a manse, which the heritors or landed proprietors in the parish are bound to build and uphold ; and he is also entitled, as part of the manse or dwelling-house, to a stable, barn, and byie. The manse must, by statute, be near to the church. When a manse has been built or repaired by the heritors it becomes a free manse, and all ordinary repaiis have to be done at the charges of the minister. Decree to the effect that a manse is ' free ' may be given by the sheriff; and such decree stands good for fifteen years, or until the appoint- ment of a new minister. It has been judicially decided that a minister has a right to let his manse at a rent for two months in summer.

Mansel, Henry Longieville, Dean of St I'aul's, was born at Cosgrove rectory, Northamp-

Mansard Roof.

2G

MANSFELD

MANSFIELD

tonshire, October 6, 1820. Educated at JMerchant Taylors' School and !St John's Collej^^e, Oxford, he became Reader in Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy in 1855, and Waynflete professor in 1859. Appointed reyius professor of Ecclesi- astical History, and canon of Cinist Church, Oxford, in 18(57, he was made Dean of St Paul's in 1869. He died 31st July 1871. The pupil and continuator of Hamilton (q.v.), he difl'ered from him in holding that there is immediate cogni- tion of the conscious ego ; an<l he went beyond his master in emphasising the relativity of knowledge in the ])rovince of theology — alleging that we have no positive conception of the attributes of God (see Condition). The agnostic tendency of this doctrine created violent controver.sy. His pub- lished M-orks are Aldrich's Logic, with Notes ( 1849) ; Prolegomena Loyica ( 1851 ) ; article ' Meta- physics ' in 8th edition of the Encyclopedia Brit- annica (1857), afterwards published separately; T/ic Limits of Religions Thouglit (Bampton Lec- tures, 1858); The Philosophy of the Conditioned (1866), in reply to Mill's licview of Hamilton's Philosophy ; and lectures on The Gnostic Heresies, edited by Ligiitfoot in 1874, with Life of Mansel by the Earl of Carnarvon. He was co-editor, with Professor Yeitch, of Sir William Hamilton's Lec- tures. See Dean Burgon's Lives of Tivelve Good Men (1888).

niaiisfeld, Counts of, an old German noble family (founded circa 1060), whose ancestral castle stood at the east end of the Harz Mountains, 14 miles NW. of Halle. Two members of the family have acquired historical reputation. CoUNT Peter Ernest I., afterwanls elevated to the rank of a l)rince, was born on 15th July 1517. Having taken part in Charles V.'s expedition against Tunis, and <Iistinguished himself afterwards at the siege of Landrecies, he Avas made by the emperor governor of the duchy of Luxemburg. But in 1552, whilst raiiUng in Champagne, he was taken prisoner by the French, and not ransomed until 1557. He fought against them again at St Quentin. On the outbreak of the revolt in the Low Countries he made a name as one of the cleverest generals in the Spanish service. Having been sent by Alva to the assistance of the French king against the Pro- testants, he covered himself M'ith glory at Mon- contour (1569). He subsequently took jiart in many sieges and military operation's in the Nether- lands, and acted for a while as governor of the Spanish Low Countries. Li 1597 he retired to Luxemburg, where he had gathered a valuable collection of antique art, and died there on 22d May 1604.

His illegitimate son, Peter Ernest IL, usually called Count Ernest von Mansfeld, was one of the most prominent military leaders during tlie Thirty Years' War (q.v.). "Born at Luxemburg in 1580, he served his apprenticeship to war in the Austrian service in Hungary and in the Juliers dispute. As part of his reward he was promised his father's pos,sessi()ns ; but when it came to the pinch, they were refused to him. This con- verted Mansfeld into an implacable enemy, and he went over to the side of the Protestant princes. He assisted the Duke of Savoy against the Spaniards (1613-17), and in 1618' was de- si)atched to Bohemia, to aid the Count-Palatine Freilerick, and captured I'ilsen and other strong- holds. But the disaster of the Weissenberg compelled him to retreat to the Palatinate, from which he carried on for neaily two years a semi- predatory war on the imperialists, defeating Tilly at Wiesloch (Ai)ril 1622). When Frederick aban- doned the struggle, Mansfeld, with his oliosen ally Chrisliiui of Brunswick, a swasiibuckling adveii- turer like himself, fought his way tlirough the

Spanish-Austrian forces to take service for the United Netherlands, beating Cordova at Fleurus (29th August). At the bidding of his new nuxsters Mansfeld chastised the Count of East Fiiesland, and then, dismissing liis army, retired into private life at The Hague. But in 1024 he resumed active work again at the solicitation of Kichelien. With an army of 12,000 men, raised mostly in Eng- laiul, he renewed the struggle on the Lower Elbe, till <m 25tli April 1626 he was crushingly defeated by 'N^'allenstein at the bridge at Dessau. Once more raising a force of 12,000 in Brandenburg, with these and 5000 Danes he marched by way of Silesia to join hands in Moravia and Hungary with Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania. But the French and English subsidies failing, on which he relied for pay for his men, he was making his way to Venice with a few officers to raise fresh moneys when he fell sick and died, standing, clad in full panoply and supjtorted by two attendants, at Eacowitza, near Serajevo in Bosnia, on 29th November 1626. Count Ernest, a soldier of for- tune, was the idol of his lawless soldiery, whom he frequently allowed to plunder and raid to their heart's content, so that they were a terror to friends as Avell as foes.

Ulaiisfieltl. a market-town of Nottinghamshiie, in Sherwood Forest, 17 miles N. of Nottingham. Its grammar-school ( 1561 ) has been rebuilt at a cost of £10,000 ; and there are a memorial cross (1850) to Lord George Bentinck, a town-hall (1836), an interesting parish church, &c. Mans- field stands in the centre of a manufacturing and mining district, and has manufactures of lace- thread and iron. Pop. ( 1851 ) 10,012 ; ( 1891 ) 15,925. See Harred's History of Alansfeld (1801).

llaiisfield, capital of Richland county, Ohio, stands on an elevated site, 179 miles by rail NE. of Cincinnati, and contains iron-foundries and manu- factories of Hour, agricultural implements, stoves, tiles, &c. Pop. 9859.

Ulaiisfield, William Murray, Earl of, Lord-chief-justice of the King's Bench, was the fourth son of Andrew, Viscount Stormont, and was born at Perth, 2d March 1705. From Westminster he passed to Christ Church, Oxford, graduated M.A. in 1730, and was called to the bar the follow- ing year. He soon acquired an extensive practice — mainly, it would seem, on account of his facility and force as a speaker, for neither then nor at any subsequent period of his career was he reckoned a very erudite lawyer — and was often employed on appeal cases before the House of Lords. In 1743 he was ajipoiuted Solicitor-general, entered the House of Commons as member for Boroughbiidge, and at once took a high po.sition. In 1746 he acted, ex officio, as counsel against the rebel lords, Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock ; was appointed Attorney-general in 1754 ; and at this time stood so high that, had not the keenness of his ambition been mitigated by a well-founded distrust of his fitness for leading the House, he might have asjjired to the highest political honours. He became Chief- justice of the King's Bench in 1756, and, contrary to usage, also a member of the cabinet ; and entered the House of Lords under the title of Baron Mans- field of Mansfield, in the county of Nottingham. Although he Avas impartial and tolerant as a judge, his opinions were not those of the popular side, and accordingly he was ex])Osed to much abuse and ]jarty hatred. Junius l)itterly attacked him, aiul during the (Jordon riots of 1780 his house, with all his books and papers, was burned. The aged judge declined with much dignity to ])e indemnilied by pailiament. In 1776 INlurray was made Earl of Mansfield. Age and ill-health forced him to resign the Chief-justiceship in 1788. He died,

MANSION HOUSE

MANTELL

27

20th March 1793, when the title devolved upon his

nephew, Visconnt Storniont.

mansion Honse, the official residence of the Lord Mayor of London, was Ijuilt on tlie site of the Old Stocks Market in 1739, at a cost of £42,638. It is an ohlong building, and at its farthest end is the Egyptian Hall. Fcnir hundred guests can dine in this grand banqueting -room, which was designed by the Earl of IJurlington from tlie description of an Egyptian chamber given by Vitruvius. All the great banquets, public and private, given by the Lord Mayor take place here, and there are also fine ball and reception rooms. At the close of the exhiltition of 1851 the Corporation of London voted £10,000 to be expended on statuary for tiie adornment of the Mansion House ; and there is also a fine gallery of portraits and other pictures. Among its curiosities may be mentioned a state bed, which cost 3000 guineas, and a kitchen and culinary utensils extraordinary for their vast size. The Lord Mayor's jewelled collar of gold and diamonds, his silver-gilt mace, las sword, and his seal are descrilied, together with his coach and ancient barge, in Thornbury's Old and New London, vol i. pp. 436, 443. The establishment and expenses connected with the office cost an annual sum of £25,000; and it is said that only one Lord Mayor ever saved anything out of his salary. The Mansion House is too modern to possess much historical interest ; but the Wilkes riots fre- quently took place in its neighbourhood during the mayoralty of Wilkes' friend, Brass Crosby. The jNIansion House is often a centre of benevolent enterprise in tlie collection of money for sufferers by war, famine, flood, pestilence, and earthquake abroad, or by colliery explosions, shipwrecks, and lack of employment at home ; and Mansion House Funds are also raised for memorials to heroic worth.

Manslaug'lltei* is the crime of unlawful homicide without malice aforethought. Homi(iide, or the infliction of death, is not a crime when it is done in self-defence against unlawful violence, or when it is done in the execution of the sentence of a court of justice. Thus one whose life is en- dangered b}' the violent attack of a madman, and kills the madman, commits homicide, but is inno- cent of manslaughter. So, too, is tlie executioner Avho hangs a convicted murderer. Homicide is unlawful, and amounts to manslaughter when, without being justified in any such manner as has been exemplified above, it is connnitted with tiie intention to cause physical injury ; or is the result of culpable negligence or omission to perform some legal duty ; or is the result of an accident occa- sioned by some unlawful act. Thus, if one man strike another without intending to kill him, and the blow prove fatal, the striker is guilty of man- slaughter ; or if, where it is the duty of the master of a ship to keep a lookout for small boats in the ship's way, a boat is run down and its occupants drowned in consequence of the absence of a look- out upon the ship, the master of the vessel is guilty of manslaughter ; or if a man is engaged in an unlicensed manufacture of dynamite, and by an accidental exi)losion of the dynamite another is killed, the manufacturer is guilty of manslaughter. When manslaugliter is accompanied by malice aforethought, it becomes murder. See Sir James Stephen's Digest of the Criminal Law.

Ulaiison, George, a Scottish water-colour painter, was born in Edinburgh on 3d December 1850. He served ^wq years as a wood-engraver in the establishment of Messrs W. tit E. Chambers, studying art in his spare hours morning and even- ing. His first picture which attracted attention, 'Milking Time,' was painted at Craigmillar Castle

near Edinburgh, between four and eight o'clock of the mornings of a wliole summer. In 1871 he de- voted iiimself to painting altogether, but his youth- ful hard study had permanently injured his health, and he died at Lympstone, Devonshire, 27tii Febru- ary 1876. His pictures, which have increased largely in value since his death, are mostly from humble life ; beauty and refinement of drawing and colour are their great charm. A memoir of him, witii photograi)hs of his principal jiictures, was pub- lished in 1880. See also P. G. Hamerton's Gruj^ihie Arts, p. 311.

niansourall, a town of Lower Egypt, on the Damietta brandi of the- Nib', 30 mijes SW. of Damietta by rail. Pop. ( 1897) 34,997. Tiie place was founded in 1220, and here St Louis of France was imprisoned in 1250.

Ulant, Richard (1776-1848), divine, was born in Southampton, educated at Oxford, and after holding cures in England, became successively Bishop of Killaloe (1820) and of Down and Connor (1823), with Dromore attached (1842). He wrote with D'Oyly a famous annotated Bible (1814), an annotated Bool' of Common Prayer (1825), and a History of the Church of Ireland (1841). See his Memoirs'hy Berens (1849) and W. Mant (1857).

Mantelinria. See Manchuria.

jUantegna. Andrea, Italian painter, born in or near Padua in 1431, was the favourite pupil and adoj)ted son of tiiat tailor Ma-cenas of painters, Squarcione. By studying the antique collections gathered together l)y his patron, especially from the study of the sculpture, Mantegna became imbued with the spirit of ancient art, and all his works bear tlie impress of the severe dignity and precision of his models. Grace and beauty were not the ideals that he aimed at ; some of his pictures are positively ugly. A precocious genius, Mantegna set up an independent atelier when only seventeen years of age. Amongst his earliest works, done at Padua, are frescoes of saints in the church of St Antony, an altarpiece for St Justina, and most of tlie frescoes of St Christopher, and some of those of St James, in the church of the Hermits. Having married the sister of Giovanni and Gentile Bellini, he seems to have become estranged from Squarcione, and left Padua (1459). He painted an altarpiece, the 'Madonna and Angels,' for St Zeno's church at Verona, and was induced by Lodovico Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, to settle in his city. There he remained, with the exception of a visit to Rome (1488-90) to paint a series of frescoes (now destroyed) for Pojjc Innocent YIII., until his death on 13th September 1506. His greatest works at Mantua were nine tempera pictures representing the ' Triumph of Caesar ' ( his masterpiece ). ' The Madonna of Victory with Gonzaga,' 'Parnassus,' 'Defeat of tlie Vices,' 'Triumph of Scipio,' and 'Madonna between St John the Baptist and St Magdalene.' Like Leonardo da Vinci, Mantegna was something of a universal genius. He was an engraver and an architect, as well as a painter, and is said to have written poems and wielded the sculptor's chi.sel. He introduced into North Italy, tlumgh he can hardly have invented, the art of engraving with the burin on cojiper. His liest plates bear the titles 'A Bacchanal Feast,' 'Descent from the Cross,' ' En- tonil)mcnt,' ' Resurrection,' ' Battle of the Titans,' and ' Roman Triumphs.' Mantegna's technical excellencies, his skilful foreshortening, masterly perspective, and austerity of form exercised a great influence upon subsequent Italian art.

DIantell, (Jideon Algernon, an eminent Brilisli ]ia];i'ontologist and geologist, was born at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1790 : studied medicine, and practised successively at Lewes, Brighton, and

28

MANTES

MANTUA

Clapham, London, where he died in 1852. Though long suiVeniig from a distressing sjiinal disease, the result of an accident, he pursued his studies with unabated zeal. He benueathed his geological draw- ings to Yale College. His collections he sold to the British Mu.'^euni in 1839 for £5000. Mantell's prin- cii)al works are FossHs of the South Downs ( 1822) ; The Fossils of Ti7(/ate Forest (1826); ]Vo>ickrs of Geohgi/ilSS'.i), perhaps the most popular geological work ever written by an Englishman ; and Medals of Creation, or First Lessons in Gcologji (1844). He was a very voluminous writer, no less than sixty- seven works and memoirs of his being enumerated in Agassiz and Strickland's Bibliotlicca Zoologice et Geologia-. His claims to a permanent place in the history of science rest mainly on his laborious investigations into the fossils of the Wealden beds. To him we owe the discovery and description of the four great Dinosaurian reptiles, the Iguanodon, Hiila'osaurns, Pelorosaurus, and Regnosaurus.

Mantes^ a town in the French department of Seine-et-Oise, on the left bank of the Seine, 36 miles by rail WNW. of Paris. It has a striking tower (1344) and a beautiful church, a reduced copy of Notre Dame at Paris. The ancient Medunta, a town of the Celts, Mantes in 1083 was sacked by William the Conqueror, who here recei\ed the injury that caused his death ; and here too Henry IV. was converted from Protestant- ism. Pop. 6607.

Maiiteuflfel, Edwix Hans Karl, Freiherr VON, Prussian general and administrator, was born, of an old Pomeranian noble family, at Dresden on 24th February 1809. Entering the Prussian guards in 1827, he rose to be colonel by 1854, and three years later was nominated head of the military bureau at Berlin, a post which he held iintil 1865. Having been appointed commander of the Prussian troops in Sleswick, he jjrotested against the summoning of the Holstein estates by marching his men into that duchy (June 7, 1866). On the outbreak of hostilities Manteuffel com- manded a division of the army of the Main, which was destined to act against the south German allies of Austria. He took part in tlie battle of Langensalza (27th June), which brought about the capitulation of the Hanoverian army, and on 19th July succeeded Von Falckenstein as commander-in- chief of the Main army, and liy M'inning the battles of Werbach, Tauberbischofsheim, Helmstadt, and Rossbrunn over the Bavarians and others he brought that part of the campaign to a successful issue. He entered the war of 1870 as commander of the First Corps, but was soon promoted to the command of the First .army, which fought successfully at Amiens and otiier places. Transferred in January 1871 to the command of the army of the south, operating against Bourbaki, Manteutl'el assailed the enemy's rear near Belfort, and drove 80,000 men across the frontier into Switzerland. When peace was i)roclaimed he was placed at the head of the army of occupation in France, and in 1879 was appointed imjjerial viceroy of the newly-organised provinces, Alsace-Lorraine. His administration was not a hai)py one : his endeavours to hel)) on the process of Germanisation by direct etlbrts only incensed the clergy and upper classes, both French and German. He died at Carlsbad, 17th June 1885. See Life by Keck (Bielef. 1889).

niailtilica, an ancient city of Arcadia, in the Peloponnesus, situated on the river Oj)his, in tlie midst of a broad plain. Here Epaminondas fell in the moment of a great victorv over the Spartans, 362 i!.c.

UlailtiSt This name is commonly applied to the various genera which constitute the family Mantida? of the insect order Orthoptera. They are chiefly to

be distinguished by the long prothorax and the enlarged front legs, which are fitted for grasping. They are entirely carnivorous in habit, but do not actively pursue their prey ; the insect waits patiently until a fly comes within reach, and then rapidly seizes it with its fore-limbs (see the illustration).

Mantis religiosa.

The attitude adopted while waiting for insects to come within reach has given to one species, plenti- ful in the south of Europe, the name of ' praying mantis' {M. religiosa). This creature, invested with supernatural attributes, figures prominently in Bushman mythology and folklore. One of the most remarkable forms of mantis is the Indian Hi/me)iopus bieornis ; it has a flower-like shape and a pink colour. The apparent petals are the much- flattened joints of some of the limbs as it rests quietly among foliage. It is supposed that the resemblance to an orchid-like flower may delude smaller in.sects into approaching near enough for the mantis to take advantage of its ' alluring ' colouns and shape.

Ulaiitliiig. See Heraldry.

man-traps, engines for the terrifying of tres- passers and poachers (formerly often indicated by the warning notice ' man-traps and spring-guns set here ' ), resembled gigantic rat-traps four feet long. They may be seen in museums ; it is, since 1827, illegal to set them save indoors between sunset and sunrise, as a defence against burglars.

Ulailtlia (Ital. Man'tova), a fortified city of Northern Italy, formerly capital of the duchy of the same name, 38 miles by rail N. of Modena and 25 S. by W. of Verona, occupies two islands formed by the Mincio, and stands in the midst of a marshy district, whicli, combined witli its artificial fortifications, makes it perhaps the strongest fortress in Italy. But at the same time its situation makes it liable to malaria. It forms one of the four fortresses of the Quadrilateral (q.v. ). The streets aie spacious, the squares numerous, and the population compara- tively small, 28,048 in 1881 ; so that for this reason, and because of the numerous massive medieval buildings, the town has a lifeless and gloomy appearance. Chief amongst the buildings are the fortress of the Gonzagas, erected in 1393-1406, and ailorned with paintings by Mantegna; close by is the ducal palace, l)egun in 1302, which contains 500 rooms, many of them ornamented with paintings and designs of (iiulio Romano ; the Palazzo Te, outside the city walls on the south, the greatest monument to the skill of (iiulio Romano as architect, painter, and sculptor ; tlie cathedral of San Pietro, restored from designs by G. Romano ; and the church of San Andrea, one of the finest Renaissance churches in Italy, containingthetomb of Mantegna, whose pupils

MANU

MANURE

29

adorned the walls with frescoes. The public institu- tions include an academy of arts and sciences, a li1)rary with 80,000 vols, and 1000 MSS., a niuseuni of antiquities, an observatory, archives, a botanical garden, a large niilitary hospital, &C. Virgil was born at Pietole (anc. Andes), now a suburb of Mantua. The industries include weaving, tanning, and saltpetre-refining. Some 3000 Jews live in Mantua. Mantua, an Etruscan toAvn, was succes- sively in the possession of the Koinans, Ostrogoths, and Lombards before falling into the hands of the emperors, who gave it to the Marquis of Canossa. From him it passed to the Countess Matilda of Tuscany in 1052. After her death it was a free imperial city and joined the Lombard leagues against the Hohenstaufen emperors. The Buonacolsis made themselves masters of the city in 1247, but were ousted from power by the head of the Gonzaga (q.v.) family in 1328. This dynasty, the head of which was created duke by Charles V. in 1530, not only maintained themselves against their great rivals, tlie Visconti of Milan, but raised the city to the lieight of its splendour and renown. The last duke died childless in 1708, and his duchy was con- fiscated by Austria, who kept her hold of it doM'n to 1866, except for two short periods (1797-99 and 1801-14), when it was in the possession of France. Mantua has endured at least three great sieges, by the Emperor Ferdinand IL in 1630, by the French in 1797, and by the Austrians in 1799. During the years 1830-59 it was the headquarters of much political persecution by the Austrian government. See Arco's History, in Italian (7 vols. 1871-74). The iirovince has an area of 911 sq. m., and a pop. (1889) of 321,872.

UlailU (from the Sanskrit ma?}, 'to think,' lit. 'the thinking being') is the reputed author of the most renowned law-book of the ancient Hindus, and likewise of an ancient Kalpa work on Vedic rites. It is matter, however, of considerable doubt whether both works belong to the same individual, and whether the name Manu, especially in the case of the author of the law-book, Avas intended to designate an historical per.sonage ; for, in several

Eassages of the Vedas (q.v.), as well as the MahA- harata (q.v.), Manu is mentioned as the progenitor of the hum.an race ; and, in the first chapter of the law-book ascribed to him, he declares himself to have been produced by Viraj, an offspring of the Supreme Being, and to have created all this universe. Hindu mythology knows, moreover, a succession of INlanus, each of Avhom created, in his own period, the Avorld anew after it had perished at tlie end of a mundane age. The word Manu — akin to our 'ituoi' — belongs therefore, pioperly speaking, to ancient Hindu mythology, and it was connected with the renowned law-book in order to impart to tiie latter the sanctity on which its authority rests. This work is not merely a law-book in the Euro- pean sense of the word, it is likewise a .system of cosmogony ; it propounds metaphysical doctrines, teaches the art of government, and, among.st other things, treats of the state of the soul after death. The chief topics of its twelve books are the follow- ing : (1) creation ; (2) education and the duties of a pupil, or the first order; (3) marriage and the duties of a householder, or the second order ; ( 4 ) means of subsistence and private morals ; (5) diet, l)urification, and the duties of women; (6) the duties of an anchorite and an ascetic, or the duties of the third and fourth orders ; ( 7 ) government and the duties of a king and the military caste ; (8) judicature and law, private and criminal; (9) con- tinuation of the former and the duties of the com- mercial and servile castes ; (10) mixed castes and the duties of the castes in time of distress; (11) \ienance and expiation; (12) transmigration and final beatitude. Biihler has proved that Max

Miiller was right in regarding the extant work as a versified recast of an ancient law-book, the manual of a particular Vedic school, the Manavas ; and holds that the work, the date of which used to be given at 1200 B.C., was certainly extant in the 2d century A.D., and seems to have been coni])osed between that date and the 2d century B.C. There are many remarkable correspondences between this work and tlie INIaliAbharata, suggesting the use in both of common materials.

The law.s of Manu wore translated by Sir Williaiu Jones (1794). See also The Ordinances of Manu, trans- lated from the Sanskrit, with introduction by Eurnell, completed by Hojjkins ( 1 886 ) ; The Laws of Man it, trans- lated with extracts from seven commentaries by G. Biihler ( in ' Sacred Books of the East,' 1888 ).

manure. Any material, whether of animal, vegetable, or mineral origin, which adds to the fertility of the soil has been generally regarded as manure. The application of stable and farmyard manure, as also the ashes of plants, tlv'c., to' the soil has been practised probably in all ages ; but the scientific principles involved in this ancient practice were but little understood until more recent times, when chemists, botanists, and physiologists set themselves the task of explaining to the agricul- turist tlie changes which are ever taking i>lace in the soil and in the plant itself. On virgin soils crops may be grown for years without much evident diminution in quantity or quality ; but a period must come when there will be an exhaustion of one or more of the constituents of plants, and the soil can then be no longer regarded as feitile. That is to say, soils contain certain proportions of certain ingredients ; and when these are al)stracted by the plant and carried away in the form of crops, the soil must in time become exhausted. It then becomes necessary to add to the soil in the form of manure such constituents as the cro])s have removed in order that the land may regain fertility. When we consider that Soils (ii-v.) are formed mainly from tlie weathering of rocks, it Avill at once be understood how it is generally unnecessary that manures should contain such things as magnesia, iron, alumina, &c. Speaking generally, the con- stituents which are removed by plants from soils, the loss of which brings about that condition of ' exhaustion," are compounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash